La plupart des pays de l’OCDE s’attendent à des pénuries croissantes de travailleurs qualifiés dans les prochaines deux décennies, et l’immigration pourrait bien être une des réponses à ce phénomène. Ces dernières années, ils ont mis en place des politiques pour faciliter le recrutement de ces travailleurs et l’on peut s’attendre à ce qu’ils poursuivent leurs efforts dans ce sens. Ce document donne un aperçu des questions portant sur la gestion des travailleurs immigrés hautement qualifiés. Généralement, un migrant hautement qualifié est sensé avoir au moins une éducation de niveau supérieur, mais d’autres définitions sont possibles, notamment sur la base de la profession exercée. Le niveau de salaire est aussi une référence pratique utilisée par certains pays pour considérer que les migrants hautement qualifiés sont les personnes qui reçoivent une rémunération au-dessus d’un certain seuil. Il y a deux principaux moyens pour recruter des travailleurs hautement qualifiés résidant à l’étranger. Le premier est à l’initiative de la demande des employeurs. L’autre est fondé sur l’offre et consiste à inviter les candidats à postuler, et leur admission dépend de certains critères sélectifs comme l’âge, le niveau d’instruction, la maîtrise de la langue et la profession exercée. Il s’agit d’un système à points au-delà d’un certain niveau de points obtenus, les candidats ont le droit de s’installer dans le pays d’accueil. Les systèmes fondés sur l’offre ont montré leurs limites au cours des décennies récentes, les pays d’accueil éprouvant des difficultés de recruter de manière à garantir une insertion réussie sur le marché du travail. Les employeurs semblent attribuer moins de valeur aux qualifications et à l’expérience professionnelle acquises dans un pays hors de la zone OCDE. Ainsi, les immigrés arrivant sans emploi préalable, éprouvent de sérieuses difficultés à trouver l’emploi correspondant à leur qualification et leur expérience. En conséquence, on note une tendance générale à transférer à l’employeur tout ou partie de la responsabilité du processus de sélection des candidats à l’immigration. De cette façon, toutes les questions de qualification et d’expérience sont abordées dans le cadre des négociations d’embauche entre les employeurs et les personnes à recruter avant l’immigration. Une deuxième option est de favoriser les candidats à la migration ayant obtenu leurs qualifications dans un pays de l’OCDE et encore plus s’il s’agit du pays d’accueil lui-même. La plupart des pays de l’OCDE ont en fait adopté des mesures pour permettre aux étudiants étrangers ayant achevé leurs études, de rester dans le pays pour rechercher un emploi en relation avec leur niveau et leur domaine d’étude. Dans certains pays, dont la langue nationale est peu parlée au-delà de leurs frontières, le recrutement direct reste problématique, sauf si la langue de travail est internationale, comme l’anglais. Pour de tels pays, le recrutement direct peut encore être possible, si une langue internationale est largement parlée dans les lieux de travail. Autrement, la migration impulsée par devrait être envisagée avec des investissements linguistiques importants demandés aux nouveaux arrivés. Une politique active de recrutement signifie bien davantage que la simple possibilité d’accorder des permis à des employeurs ou à des candidats à l’immigration, sur la base de la reconnaissance de leur niveau de connaissance. Si les migrants hautement qualifiés peuvent être attirés, quels que soient les obstacles à surmonter, par des pays où les salaires sont élevés et dont les langues nationales sont largement parlées, les pays ayant une langue peu parlée en dehors du territoire national et offrant des salaires moins élevés ne pourront se contenter uniquement de la levée des barrières administratives. Dans la plupart des pays, les effets de l’évolution démographique commencent tout juste à se faire sentir. Mais, à l’horizon 2010, plus de la moitié des pays de l’OCDE auront des cohortes entrantes de main d’œuvre moins nombreuses que les cohortes sortantes. L’objectif à moyen terme pour les pays de l’OCDE est d’avoir des mouvements dont l’ampleur et la nature permettront de répondre aux besoins du marché du travail. Il serait prématuré de prétendre que toutes les politiques requises sont d’ores et déjà en place. Classification-JEL: F22; J24; J44; J61 Keywords: demographic change, effets de l’évolution démographique, gestion de la migration, highly skilled migration, integration, intégration, management of migration, migration de travailleurs hautement qualifiés Creation-Date: 2009-03-18 Number: 79 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:79-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daniela Kalužná Title: Main Features of the Public Employment Service in Poland Abstract: This report describes the organisation of employment services, labour market programmes, unemployment insurance (UI) benefits and social assistance in Poland according to the legislation that was in force until January 2009, when the Act on employment promotion and labour market institutions was amended. The decentralisation of employment service began in 1998 and was completed in 2002. Since decentralisation, local-level poviat labour offices (PUP) report to local mayors (starosta or prezydent miasta na prawach powiatu). However, state structures at a regional level supervise the performance of both the PUP and, at the regional level, the voivodeship labour offices (WUP). These offices must follow some centrally-defined rules and legal standards: for example, a Ministerial guideline in 2007 defined minimum numbers of staff they should employ by main function. However, their operational costs are in principle borne by the respective territorial levels of government. Under-financing is common, and there are concerns that decentralisation has led to more uneven service provision and performance. Local budgets may be used to finance the outsourcing of some PUP labour market services, but local authorities usually find that in-house provision is cheaper. Classification-JEL: H53; H83; I38; J08; J63; J65 Creation-Date: 2009-03-20 Number: 80 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:80-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Mark Pearson Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: A Good Time for Making Work Pay? Taking Stock of In-Work Benefits and Related Measures across the OECD Abstract: The twin problem of in-work poverty and persistent labour market difficulties of low-skilled individuals has been one of the most important drivers of tax-benefit policy reforms in OECD countries in recent years. Employment-conditional cash transfers to individuals facing particular labour-market challenges have been a core element of “make-work-pay” policies for some time and are now in use in more than half of the OECD countries. They are attractive because they redistribute to low-income groups while also creating additional work incentives. But like all social benefits, they have to be financed, which creates additional economic costs for some. This paper discusses the rationale for in-work benefits (IWB), summarises the main design features of programmes operated in OECD countries, and provides an update of what is known about their effectiveness in terms of reducing inequalities and creating employment. As policies aiming to promote self-sufficiency, wage subsidies and minimum wages share a number of the objectives associated with IWB measures. We review evidence on the effectiveness of minimum wages and wage subsidies and discuss links between these policies and IWBs. Finally, we outline some potential consequences of weakening labour markets for the effectiveness of make-work-pay policies.
Le double problème de la pauvreté touchant même les personnes pourvues d’un emploi et de la persistance des difficultés rencontrées par les travailleurs peu qualifiés sur le marché du travail a été l’un des moteurs les plus importants de la réforme des politiques en matière de fiscalité et de prestations menée ces dernières années dans les pays de l’OCDE. Depuis un certain temps, les prestations en espèces subordonnées à l’exercice d’un emploi (accordées aux personnes confrontées à des difficultés particulières sur le marché du travail) sont devenues une composante essentielle des politiques de valorisation du travail. Aujourd’hui, plus de la moitié des pays de l’Organisation les ont mises en place. Ces prestations sont attrayantes car elles ont un effet de redistribution sur les groupes à faible revenu tout en créant de nouvelles incitations à travailler. Mais, à l’instar de toutes les prestations sociales, elles doivent être financées, ce qui alourdit les coûts économiques pour certains. Ce document examine le bien-fondé des prestations soumises à l’exercice d’un emploi, résume les principales caractéristiques de la conception des programmes mis en place dans les pays de l’OCDE, et fait le point de ce que l’on sait de leur efficacité sur le plan de la réduction des inégalités et de la création d’emploi. En tant que mesures destinées à promouvoir l’autonomie économique, les subventions salariales et les salaires minimums ont un certain nombre d’objectifs en commun avec les prestations soumises à l’exercice d’un emploi. Nous passons en revue des données d’observation sur l’efficacité des subventions salariales et des salaires minimums et examinons les liens entre ces mesures et les prestations en question. Enfin, nous mettons en évidence certaines conséquences possibles du fléchissement du marché du travail sur l’efficacité des politiques de valorisation du travail. Classification-JEL: H24; H31; J20; J30 Creation-Date: 2009-03-20 Number: 81 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:81-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Simon Chapple Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Child Well-Being and Sole-Parent Family Structure in the OECD: An Analysis Abstract: This paper addresses the causal impact of being raised in a sole-parent family on child well-being across the OECD. The question is answered by a cross-OECD meta-analysis and a literature review. There are widely varying rates of sole parenthood across the OECD. Rates of sole parenthood have generally been rising in the past few decades. Inevitably, countries with higher rates of sole parenthood are more concerned about the potential well-being effects on children. The reasons for sole parenthood include never having partnered, having separated and divorced, and being widowed. The composition of sole parents by these reasons varies widely across OECD countries. Views on the desirability of two-parent families for raising children are also divergent across the OECD.
Ce document examine l’impact de l’appartenance à une famille monoparentale sur le bien-être des enfants dans les pays de l’OCDE. Il marque l’aboutissement d’une méta-analyse et d’un examen des travaux publiés sur le sujet dans ces différents pays. Le taux de monoparentalité varie considérablement d’un pays de l’OCDE à l’autre. D’une manière générale, ce taux a augmenté au cours des toutes dernières décennies. Bien évidemment, les pays où ce taux est élevé se préoccupent plus que les autres des effets possibles de la monoparentalité sur les enfants en termes de bien-être. Les causes de monoparentalité incluent le fait de ne jamais avoir vécu en couple, la séparation, le divorce et le veuvage. C’est la raison pour laquelle la composition des familles monoparentales est extrêmement variable d’un pays de l’Organisation à l’autre. Sur le point de savoir s’il est souhaitable que les enfants soient élevés par leurs deux parents, les avis diffèrent également selon les pays. La méta-analyse de 122 études de pays de l’OCDE hors États-Unis conclut qu’en moyenne, les effets préjudiciables de la monoparentalité sur le bien-être des enfants sont faibles, constat grosso modo conforme à celui de méta-analyses antérieures, fondées en grande partie sur des études américaines. Plus l’étude est de bonne qualité, plus la taille de l’effet constaté est faible. La taille des effets varie également d’un pays de l’Organisation à l’autre mais il n’a pas été possible de rattacher systématiquement ce phénomène à des différences de politique. Quoi qu’il en soit, si les effets sont faibles, toute interprétation de causalité doit impérativement s’appuyer sur des hypothèses solides. Classification-JEL: J12; J13 Creation-Date: 2009-03-23 Number: 82 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:82-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrew E. Clark Author-Workplace-Name: PARIS-Jourdan Sciences Economiques, unité mixte CNRS-ENPC-ENS Title: Work, Jobs and Well-Being across the Millennium Abstract: This paper uses repeated cross-section data ISSP data from 1989, 1997 and 2005 to consider movements in job quality. It is first underlined that not having a job when you want one is a major source of low well-being. Second, job values have remained fairly stable over time, although workers seem to give increasing importance to the more “social” aspects of jobs: useful and helpful jobs. The central finding of the paper is that, following a substantial fall between 1989 and 1997, subjective measures of job quality have mostly bounced back between 1997 and 2005. Overall job satisfaction is higher in 2005 than it was in 1989. Last, the rate of self-employment has been falling gently in ISSP data; even so three to four times as many people say they would prefer to be self-employed than are actually self-employed. As the self-employed are more satisfied than are employees, one consistent interpretation of the above is that the barriers to self-employment have grown in recent years.
Ce document exploite des données transversales de l’International Social Science Programme (ISSP) portant sur différentes périodes (1989, 1997 et 2005) pour examiner l’évolution de la qualité des emplois. Dans un premier temps, il est souligné que le fait de ne pas avoir d’emploi quand on le voudrait amoindrit considérablement le sentiment de bien-être. Vient ensuite un constat selon lequel la valeur des emplois est demeurée relativement stable au fil du temps. Pour autant, les travailleurs semblent accorder une importance croissante à la dimension « sociale » de leur emploi, privilégiant des notions d’utilité et de services rendus. La principale conclusion du document est que, après une dégradation significative entre 1989 et 1997, les indicateurs subjectifs de la qualité des emplois se sont pour la plupart redressés entre 1997 et 2005. Le degré de satisfaction global à l’égard du travail est plus élevé en 2005 qu’il ne l’était en 1989. Enfin, dans les données de l’ISSP, le taux d’emploi indépendant a diminué tout doucement. Malgré tout, les individus qui disent préférer cette forme d’activité sont trois à quatre fois plus nombreux que ceux qui exercent réellement à titre indépendant. Comme les travailleurs indépendants sont plus satisfaits de leur emploi que les salariés, on peut logiquement en déduire que les obstacles au travail indépendant ont augmenté ces dernières années. Classification-JEL: J21; J28; J3; J6; J81; L26 Creation-Date: 2009-03-23 Number: 83 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:83-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jongkyun Choi Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Pension Schemes for the Self-Employed in OECD Countries Abstract: The self-employed workers make up a small but significant minority of the workforce in many OECD countries. Moreover, transitions into and out of self-employment have become much more common for a larger group of workers. It is therefore of critical importance to review and assess the pension schemes available to self-employed workers across OECD countries. Given employment and income patterns commonly observed for this subgroup, it is also important to address the issue of compliance and enforcement towards a formal affiliation of this group to pension schemes on offer. This paper reviews three key aspects of pension schemes available to self-employed workers: coverage, contributions and benefits. In each part, analyses are undertaken not just by describing the rules governing these schemes but also looking into their actual functioning in terms of compliance and enforcement. Key findings include the fact that the self-employed are covered by the same pension schemes as those of employees in the majority of countries. One important difference is that, while employees share the contribution burden with their employers, the self-employed workers in most cases pay the full pension contribution from their own income. The rules for pension entitlements, on the other hand, are usually almost identical to those that apply to employees. One key conclusion emerging from this paper is that the pension provision for the self-employed is a matter of practical implementation of existing schemes rather than overhauling pension rules for these schemes. Low coverage is a common problem for this group in some OECD countries, as they belong to the informal sector and their incomes are hard to identify. Contribution evasion or under-reporting of income by the self-employed is prevalent even in some countries with high per capita income. This has implications as these self-employed workers will have lower levels of pension incomes at retirement. In some cases, low contributions coupled with relatively generous pension rights also raise an issue of equity in the provision of pensions for the self-employed and employees.
Dans beaucoup de pays de l’OCDE, les travailleurs indépendants constituent, au sein de la population active, une minorité faible par la taille mais d’importance significative. En outre, pour un nombre accru de travailleurs, le passage au statut d’indépendant et l’abandon de ce statut est un processus bien plus courant aujourd’hui. En conséquence, il est crucial d’examiner et évaluer les régimes de pension qui sont à la disposition des travailleurs indépendants dans les différents pays de l’OCDE. Compte tenu de la structure de l’emploi et de celle du revenu généralement observées au sein de cette population, il importe également de s’intéresser au respect de l’obligation d’affiliation formelle de ces travailleurs aux régimes de pension qui leur sont proposés et aux moyens de les y contraindre. Ce document examine trois aspects clés des régimes de pension auxquels les travailleurs indépendants peuvent s’affilier : couverture, cotisations et prestations. Dans chaque partie, les analyses proposées ne se contentent pas de décrire les règles régissant ces dispositifs, mais portent aussi sur leur fonctionnement concret du point de vue du respect de l’obligation d’affiliation et des instruments de coercition. Les principales observations englobent le fait que, dans la majorité des pays, les travailleurs indépendants sont couverts par les mêmes régimes de retraite que les salariés, à ceci près, et la différence est de taille, que si les salariés partagent le poids des cotisations avec leurs employeurs, les travailleurs indépendants payent dans la plupart des cas les deux parts sur leur propre revenu. Par ailleurs, les règles régissant les droits à pension des indépendants sont généralement presque identiques à celles s’appliquant aux salariés. Une conclusion essentielle se dégage de ce document : en matière de retraite, la question qui se pose pour les travailleurs indépendants concerne l’application pratique des dispositifs existants et non la remise à plat des règles. Dans quelques pays de l’OCDE, les indépendants se heurtent à un même problème, celui du faible niveau de couverture, car cette catégorie de travailleurs relève du secteur informel, et ses revenus sont difficiles à cerner. La fraude fiscale et la sous-déclaration des revenus sont très répandues chez les travailleurs indépendants, même dans des pays où le revenu par habitant est élevé. Ce phénomène n’est pas sans conséquence car au moment de la retraite, le niveau de revenu que procurera à ces travailleurs leur pension sera plus modeste. Dans certains cas, le faible niveau des cotisations conjugué à la générosité des droits à pension soulève aussi un problème d’équité dans le financement des pensions des travailleurs indépendants et des salariés. Classification-JEL: H55; J23 Creation-Date: 2009-04-09 Number: 84 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:84-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Osvaldo Larrañaga Author-Workplace-Name: University of Chile Title: Inequality, Poverty and Social Policy: Recent Trends in Chile Abstract: This report aims to outline the main trends in income distribution and poverty in Chile, as well as the role of social policy in these areas. The report includes five sections. First, it discusses recent trends in income inequality and poverty, including a brief overview of the data available in the country. Second, it describes the country’s social protection programs, including with respect to coverage, financing and distributional impact. The third section examines how social policy has affected poverty reduction in recent decades, which is followed by an analysis of the relative stability of income inequality and its relation to public policy instruments. Section five presents future trends in social policy and their potential impact on inequality and poverty.
Le présent rapport passe en revue les principales tendances d’évolution de la distribution des revenus et de la pauvreté au Chili, ainsi que le rôle de la politique sociale dans ces domaines. Ce rapport comprend cinq parties. La première passe en revue les tendances récentes en matière d’inégalité des revenus et de pauvreté et donne une vue d’ensemble des données disponibles correspondantes. La deuxième partie décrit les programmes de protection sociale du pays, notamment leur étendue, leur financement et leur impact sur la distribution. La troisième partie vise à déterminer les effets exercés par la politique sociale sur la réduction de la pauvreté durant les récentes décennies. La quatrième partie analyse la stabilité relative des inégalités de revenus et le lien avec les instruments de la politique publique. La cinquième partie présente les tendances futures d’évolution de la politique sociale et son impact potentiel sur les inégalités et la pauvreté. Classification-JEL: I30; I38 Creation-Date: 2009-04-08 Number: 85 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:85-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Augusto Iglesias-Palau Title: Pension Reform in Chile Revisited: What Has Been Learned? Abstract: The paper describes Chile’s pension reform of 1980, which replaced the existing pay-as-you-go public pension programs by a new funded pension program managed by private companies (the “AFP´s”). It comments on the main results of this reform so far, and identifies the current challenges faced by the country’s pension system. The paper also describes the changes introduced to Chile’s pension system in March 2008 and assesses their potential impact. The Chilean case shows that parametric reforms preceding the creation of a funded program can reduce political resistance to structural pension reform. Chile’s experience also suggests that the consistency of opinions among the economic, social security and labor market authorities responsible of designing and conducting a pension reform process can help to sell the reform to the political authorities. If the decision is to replace an existing pension program by a new one, it also seems necessary to have specific rules that, in some particular circumstances and for a limited period of time, allow discontented workers to go back to their former pension program. Chile’s experience also shows that the quality of pension programs micro design is relevant since individual decisions and portfolio managers investments decisions are shaped by regulations. Results so far suggests that the reform has been successful in improving the long term sustainability of Chile’s pension system; in creating a more fair system; in promoting the development of capital markets; and in removing some distortions to the operation of labor markets. On the other side, there is some room for the new program operational costs and prices to go down, and expectations about an increase in second pillar coverage have not been met. While some regulatory changes could improve the extent and quality of the funded pension program coverage, the long-term solution to the economic problems of retirement involves the labor market. To improve future pensions more jobs in the formal sector of the economy should be created; unemployment must be reduced; and working lives should be extended.
Le document décrit la réforme chilienne des pensions, qui a remplacé en 1980 les programmes publics de retraite par répartition par un système financé par capitalisation, géré par des entreprises privées (les “AFP”). Il commente les principaux résultats de cette réforme et recense les défis auxquels est actuellement confronté le nouveau régime. Le document décrit aussi les modifications qui y ont été apportées en mars 2008 et en évalue l’impact potentiel. Le cas chilien montre que les réformes paramétriques, qui avaient précédé la mise en place d’un système financé par capitalisation, peuvent atténuer les résistances politiques à une réforme structurelle des retraites. L’expérience du Chili donne aussi à penser que la cohérence des avis formulés par les autorités responsables de la politique économique, de la sécurité sociale et des marchés du travail, chargées de concevoir et de conduire le processus de réforme des retraites, peuvent aider à « vendre » la réforme aux autorités politiques. Lorsque l’on prend la décision de remplacer un régime de retraite par un autre, il semble également nécessaire de définir des règles spécifiques autorisant, dans certaines circonstances particulières et pendant une période limitée, les travailleurs mécontents à se réaffilier à leur régime de retraite antérieur. L’expérience du Chili montre aussi qu’il importe de veiller attentivement à la qualité de la conception des dispositions détaillées du système, car les décisions des particuliers et des gestionnaires des investissements de portefeuilles dépendent du cadre réglementaire mis en place. Les résultats observés jusqu’ ici laissent penser que la réforme a permis d’améliorer la viabilité à long terme du système chilien des retraites, d’instaurer un système plus équitable, de promouvoir le développement des marchés financiers et d’éliminer certains facteurs de distorsion du fonctionnement des marchés du travail. Par contre, il y existe une certaine marge de manoeuvre pour abaisser les coûts de fonctionnement du nouveau régime et les coûts d’affiliation. Les attentes quant à une extension de la couverture du second pilier ne se sont pas concrétisées. Si certaines modifications d’ordre réglementaire sont de nature à améliorer l’étendue et la qualité de la couverture du régime de pension capitalisé, à longterme la solution aux problèmes de financement des retraites est liée à la situation du marché du travail. Pour améliorer les retraites futures, il faudrait créer des emplois plus nombreux dans le secteur formel de l’économie, réduire le chômage et allonger la durée de la vie active. Classification-JEL: E62; G22; G23; G28; H53; H55 Creation-Date: 2009-04-08 Number: 86 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:86-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edward Whitehouse Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Anna Christina D'Addio Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Andrew Reilly Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Investment Risk and Pensions: Impact on Individual Retirement Incomes and Government Budgets Abstract: The current financial and economic crisis has highlighted the importance of investment risk for pension systems. In particular, the dramatic spread of defined-contribution pension provision around the world means that investment risk has a direct effect on living standards in old age. This paper explores how uncertainty over investment returns affects individuals’ retirement incomes and government budgets. The key finding is that public pensions, old-age safety net benefits and the tax system act as “automatic stabilisers” of retirement incomes in the face of investment risk in defined-contribution pension plans. However, the degree of protection offered by these policies, and therefore the exposure of individuals’ retirement incomes to investment risk, varies significantly between countries. The paper uses the OECD pension models to explore the implications of a range of possible outcomes for investment returns. (The distribution of investment returns used is derived from historical data in D’Addio, Seisdedos and Whitehouse, 2009.) The analysis begins with the individual pension-scheme member. The results demonstrate that the overall design of the retirement-income package must be taken into account when assessing exposure of individual incomes in old age to investment performance. Many elements of pension systems are not subject to investment risk. And resource-tested benefits can act to mitigate investment risk by paying a larger benefit when returns are poor. Analysis of net pensions shows how taxes can also act to offset the effect of investment risk on living standards in retirement. The differences between countries in the extent to which these different factors affect exposure to investment risk are huge. Together, taxes and meanstested benefits can be termed “automatic stabilisers” for retirement incomes in the face of investment risk. Secondly, the paper uses the OECD pension models to look at the impact of investment risk on the public finances. The corollary of the reduction in investment risk for individuals through tax and transfer policies is exposure to investment risk of the public finances. In countries with resource-tested benefits, the government has a “contingent liability” that depends on investment returns. Better performance means lower expenditure on safety-net benefits. Similarly, the tax system means that the government is effectively a “co-investor”, with the individual retiree, in the defined-contribution plan. Higher returns mean more tax revenues. This effect is particularly large where the tax burden on pensions in payment is high. Adding these two effects together, governments (and so taxpayers) are in many countries significantly exposed to investment risk. This demonstrates how it is impossible to make risks go away: it is only possible to reallocate the risk between different actors in the pension system.
L’actuelle crise financière et économique a mis en évidence l’importance du risque d’investissement pour les systèmes de retraite. En particulier, la propagation dramatique des régimes à cotisations définies à travers le monde implique que le risque d’investissement a un effet direct sur le niveau de vie des individus pendant la retraite. Ce document analyse comment l’incertitude sur les rendements des investissements affecte les revenus de retraite des individus et les budgets des gouvernements. La conclusion principale est que les pensions publiques, les filets de sécurité mis en place pour les personnes âgées et le système fiscal jouent le rôle de « stabilisateurs automatiques » des revenus de retraite face au risque d’investissement dans des plans de retraite à cotisations définies. Cependant, le degré de protection offert par ces politiques, et donc l’exposition au risque d’investissement des revenus de retraite individuels, varie de manière significative entre les pays. Le document utilise les modèles de pension de l’OCDE pour étudier les implications associées à une gamme de rendements des placements. (La distribution des rendements d’investissement utilisée est dérivée des données historiques selon la procédure illustrée dans D’Addio, Seisdedos et Whitehouse, 2009). L’analyse se concentre en premier lieu sur les revenus de retraites des individus. Les résultats démontrent que la conception globale de l’ensemble des revenus de retraite doit être prise en compte lors de l’évaluation de l’exposition aux performances des investissements des revenus individuels de retraite. De nombreux éléments des systèmes de retraite ne sont pas sujets au risque d’investissement. Et les prestations sous condition de ressources peuvent atténuer le risque d’investissement moyennant le paiement d’une prestation plus élevée lorsque les rendements sont faibles. L’analyse des revenus de retraites nets d’impôts montre comment ces derniers peuvent également contribuer à compenser l’effet du risque d’investissement sur le niveau de vie pendant la retraite. Les différences entre les pays dans la mesure où ces différents facteurs influent sur l’exposition au risque d’investissement sont énormes. Ensemble, les taxes et les prestations sous conditions de ressources peuvent être qualifiées de « stabilisateurs automatiques » pour les revenus de retraite face au risque d’investissement. Deuxièmement, le document utilise des modèles de pension de l’OCDE pour examiner l’impact du risque d’investissement sur les finances publiques. Le corollaire de la réduction de risque d’investissement pour les particuliers par le biais de politiques fiscales et de transfert est l’exposition aux risques d’investissement des finances publiques. Dans les pays qui ont mis en place des prestations sous condition de ressources, le gouvernement a un « passif » qui dépend du rendement du capital investi. Une meilleure performance signifie la baisse des dépenses pour des filets de sécurité. De même, le système fiscal implique que le gouvernement est effectivement un « co-investisseur », avec les retraités, dans le plan à cotisations définies. Des rendements plus élevés, impliquent des recettes fiscales plus élevées. Cet effet est particulièrement important lorsque la charge fiscale sur les droits à pension est élevée. La somme de ces deux effets signifie finalement que, les gouvernements (et donc les contribuables) sont fortement exposés au risque d’investissement dans de nombreux pays. Cela montre pourquoi et à quel point il est impossible de faire disparaître les risques : il est seulement possible de redistribuer ces risques entre les différents acteurs du système de retraite. Classification-JEL: D14; G11; G23 Keywords: investment return, pensions, pensions de retraite, retour sur investissement Creation-Date: 2009-06-05 Number: 87 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:87-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Henning Lohmann Author-Workplace-Name: German Institute for Economic Research (DIW-Berlin) Author-Name: Frauke H. Peter Author-Workplace-Name: German Institute for Economic Research (DIW-Berlin) Author-Name: Tine Rostgaard Author-Workplace-Name: SFI Author-Name: Katharina Spiess Author-Workplace-Name: German Institute for Economic Research (DIW-Berlin) Title: Towards a Framework for Assessing Family Policies in the EU Abstract: This report presents the results of a first attempt to create a framework for assessing the performance of national family policies. The report is part of a joint EU and OECD project, which aims to help the EU Government Expert Group on Demographic Issues in evaluating national family policies. The idea behind the framework is that it allows individual countries to compare their overall performance in the area of family policies with the performance of other countries. The main focus of the report is policies for families with smaller children. The framework provides a set of cross-nationally comparable indicators on contexts, policy measures, and outcomes, organised on a systematic basis. The policy measure indicators presented in the report cover leave schemes, early childhood education and care, family benefits and workplace policies. The indicators build upon, inter alia, previous work by the OECD in various studies on family-friendly policies that were carried out on a cross-national basis using different sets of indicators. Most of these indicators are today available in the OECD Family Database. Wherever the OECD Family Database contains indicators for the majority of EU member states and OECD countries, these data have been used in the present study. Otherwise, data from other cross-national databases have been included. Each indicator in the framework is presented as a single-standing indicator in the general absence of scientific consensus on different aggregation weights. In the report no explicit ranking of countries has been attempted, instead the relative position of countries has been illustrated with the help of standard deviation scores. In the last part of the report the linkages between policy aims and the various context, outcome and policy measures are indicated, which help construct “score cards”. This “score card-approach” is illustrated for three countries: Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom. The report offers tools for assessment that may be developed further, and should offer an approach to using the OECD Family Database, acknowledging this unique data source for cross-country comparisons in the field of family policy.
Ce rapport présente les résultats d’une première tentative d’élaborer un cadre d’évaluation de la performance des politiques nationales en faveur des familles. Ce rapport fait partie d’un projet élaboré conjointement par l’Union européenne et l’OCDE, qui vise à aider le groupe d’experts gouvernementaux sur les sujets démographiques de l’UE pour évaluer les politiques nationales d’aides aux familles. L’idée sous-jacente est de permettre à chaque pays de comparer ses performances avec celles des autres pays. Les familles avec de jeunes enfants sont le principal sujet d’analyse de ce rapport. Le cadre élaboré propose un ensemble d’indicateurs comparables entre pays sur les contextes, les mesures politiques et les résultats, organisés sur une base systématique. Les indicateurs de mesures politiques couvrent les dispositifs de congé, d’aides à l’éducation et aux soins accordées à la petite enfance, les prestations financières et les politiques liées au lieu de travail. Ces indicateurs ont été élaborés, inter alia, à partir des travaux antérieurs de l’OCDE sur les politiques favorables aux familles qui ont été conduites de manière comparative sur la base de différents ensembles d’indicateurs. La plupart de ces indicateurs sont aujourd’hui disponibles au sein de la base de données OCDE sur les Familles. Ces indicateurs ont été inclus pour la majorité des pays de l’UE et de l’OCDE pour lesquels ils sont disponibles. Lorsqu’ils n’étaient pas disponibles, des données provenant de bases internationales ont été prises en compte. Chaque indicateur est présenté ici de façon séparée, car il n’y a pas de consensus scientifique sur la pondération qui permettrait de les agréger. Aucun classement explicite des pays n’a été tenté ici ; la position relative des pays est, au contraire, illustrée au moyen de scores d’écarts-types. Dans la dernière partie du rapport, les liens entre les objectifs politiques et les variables de contexte de résultats et de mesures politiques sont pris en compte pour élaborer des « cartes de score ». Cette approche par « cartes de scores » est illustrée pour trois pays : le Danemark, l’Allemagne et le Royaume-Uni. Ce rapport offre des outils d’évaluation qui pourront être encore développés, et devrait offrir une approche de la manière d’utiliser la base de données de l’OCDE sur les Familles, qui constitue une source de données incontournable pour faire des comparaisons internationales dans le champ des politiques familiales. Classification-JEL: H2; H4; I1; I2; I3; J13; J18; J2; J3 Keywords: early childhood education and care, family benefits, lieu de travail, parental leave schemes, prestations familiales, régimes de congé parental, workplace policies, éducation et accueil des jeunes enfants Creation-Date: 2009-06-03 Number: 88 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:88-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Danielle Venn Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Legislation, Collective Bargaining and Enforcement: Updating the OECD Employment Protection Indicators Abstract: This paper presents updated estimates of the OECD employment protection indicators for 30 OECD countries and 10 emerging economies and considers important aspects of employment protection other than those provided in legislation. Collective agreements often contain provisions relating to employment protection, but in most OECD countries, severance pay and notice periods in collective agreements are similar to those set out in legislation. Where bargaining takes place largely outside individual firms at the national, regional or sectoral level and collective agreements include provisions substantially more generous to employees than those in legislation, they are incorporated into the OECD indicators. Many OECD countries exempt some groups of firms or workers from employment protection rules. Such exemptions have mixed success in promoting employment among exempted groups, but do not have a large impact on the accuracy of the OECD indicators. More than half of OECD countries have specialised courts or procedures to handle unfair dismissal cases, reducing the time taken to deal with cases and improving satisfaction with legal outcomes. Resolving disputes early (either through pre-court dispute resolution procedures or pre-trial conciliation) saves time and money compared with waiting for a court decision. More research and cross-country comparable data are needed on the efficiency of conciliation procedures and the cost of pursuing or defending dismissal cases.
Cet article présente la mise à jour des estimations des indicateurs de la protection de l’emploi de l’OCDE pour 30 pays de l’OCDE et 10 pays émergents et examine les aspects important de la protection de l’emploi, autres que celles prévues dans la législation. Les conventions collectives comportent souvent des dispositions relatives à la protection de l’emploi, mais dans la plupart des pays de l’OCDE, les indemnités de cessation d’emploi et les délais de préavis prévus par les conventions collectives sont comparables à ceux stipulés par la législation. Lorsque la négociation collective se situe au niveau de la branche, au niveau régional ou au niveau national, et que les conventions collectives intègrent des dispositions sensiblement plus généreuses pour les salariés que celles inscrites dans la législation, il en est tenu compte dans les indicateurs de protection de l’emploi de l’OCDE. De nombreux pays de l’OCDE exemptent certains groupes d'entreprises ou de travailleurs de la protection de l'emploi. Ces dérogations ont un succès mitigé dans la promotion de l'emploi parmi les groupes exemptés, mais ils n'ont pas un grand impact sur la précision des indicateurs de l'OCDE. Plus de la moitié des pays de l’OCDE ont des juridictions ou des procédures spécialisées pour traiter les affaires de licenciement abusif, qui facilitent l’accès à la justice, réduisent les délais de procédure et améliorent la satisfaction quant aux résultats. Résoudre les conflits précocement (soit par des procédures précontentieuses de règlement des litiges, soit par une conciliation au stade de la mise en état) permet d’économiser du temps et de l’argent plutôt que d’avoir à attendre la décision d’une juridiction. Il reste cependant nécessaire d’entreprendre des travaux de recherche supplémentaires et de collectes de donnés, plus facilement comparable d’un pays à l’autre, sur l’efficacité des procédures de conciliation et les coûts associés à la présentation ou à la défense d’un cas de licenciement devant les tribunaux. Classification-JEL: J52; J63; J65; K31 Creation-Date: 2009-07-02 Number: 89 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:89-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Thomas Manfredi Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Going Separate Ways? School-to-Work Transitions in the United States and Europe Abstract: This paper derives school-to-work transition pathways in the United States and Europe between the late 1990s and the early 2000s. To do so, it uses Optimal Matching, a technique developed to sequence DNA. The key advantage of using this technique is that, rather than focusing on a specific point in time or a single destination, such as employment, inactivity or unemployment, they convey information on all activities undertaken by youth over the transition period, their sequence and their persistence. Strong similarities are found between the United States and Europe. However, pathways in the United States are characterised by significantly more dynamism than in Europe: youth in employment tend to change jobs more frequently while inactive or unemployed youth are more likely to experience several short spells rather than a single long one. School-to-work transition pathways in the United States also involve less time spent in unemployment than in Europe. The share of school-leavers involved in pathways dominated by employment is larger in the United States than in Europe and non-employment traps are less frequent in the United States. The most successful European countries in terms of school-to-work transitions are those where apprenticeships are widespread. On the other hand, European countries with a high incidence of temporary work among youth have a significantly smaller share of youth belonging to pathways dominated by employment and a larger share of youth in pathways characterised by frequent job changes separated by long unemployment spells. At the individual level, qualifications, gender, ethnicity and motherhood are found to influence the probability of disconnecting from the labour market and education for a prolonged period of time. Overall, the analysis shows the potential of Optimal Matching as a descriptive tool for the study of school-to-work transitions. It also tentatively explores how pathways obtained through Optimal Matching could be used for further analysis to draw policy-relevant conclusions. At present, data availability appears to be the main barrier to fully exploiting this novel technique.
Cet article analyse les trajectoires de transition de l’école à l’emploi aux États-Unis et en Europe entre la fin des années 1990 et le début des années 2000. Pour ce faire, il utilise « l’Optimal Matching », une technique développée pour l’analyse des séquences d’ADN. Le principal atout de cette technique est qu’au lieu de se concentrer sur un moment spécifique ou sur une seule activité, telle que l’emploi, l’inactivité ou le chômage, elles véhiculent de l’information sur toute les activités entreprises par les jeunes pendant la période de transition, leur chronologie et leur persévérance. On constante de nombreuses similarités entre les États-Unis et l’Europe. Toutefois, les trajectoires aux États-Unis sont caractérisées par beaucoup plus de dynamisme qu’en Europe : les jeunes occupés ont tendance à changer d’emploi plus fréquemment et les épisodes de chômage sont plus souvent cours et répétés que de longue durée. Les trajectoires de transition de l’école à l’emploi aux États-Unis sont aussi caractérisées par moins de temps passé au chômage qu’en Europe. La proportion de jeunes quittant l’école qui entame des trajectoires dominées par l’emploi est plus importante aux États-Unis qu’en Europe et les pièges du non-emploi sont moins fréquents aux États-Unis. Les pays européens les plus performants en termes de transitions de l’école à l’emploi sont ceux où l’apprentissage est le plus répandu. D’autre part, les pays européens à forte incidence de l’emploi temporaire parmi les jeunes, présentent une part plus faible de jeunes dans les trajectoires dominées par l’emploi et une part plus importante de jeunes dans les trajectoires marquées par plusieurs changements d’emploi séparés par de longs épisodes de chômage. Au niveau individuel, le niveau de qualification, le sexe, l’origine ethnique et la maternité influencent la probabilité de se déconnecter du marché du travail et du système éducatif pour une période prolongée. Globalement, l’analyse montre le potentiel de l’Optimal Matching comme outil descriptif dans l’étude des transitions de l’école à l’emploi. Cet article tente également d’utiliser les trajectoires obtenues avec l’application de l’Optimal Matching pour en tirer des conclusions politiques. La disponibilité de données est actuellement la principale barrière à l’exploitation à part entière de cette nouvelle technique. Classification-JEL: J21; J22; J64 Creation-Date: 2009-08-20 Number: 90 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:90-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Asghar Zaidi Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Edward Whitehouse Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Should Pension Systems Recognise "Hazardous and Arduous Work"? Abstract: Special pensions for workers in hazardous or arduous jobs have long been a feature of the pension landscape and, recently, they are the subject of a great deal of debate in the pension arenas of many OECD countries. Such pensions are historically rooted in the idea that people who work in hazardous or arduous jobs – say, underground mining – merit special treatment. The rationale for this scheme is that hazardous or arduous work increases mortality and reduces life expectancy, thus reducing the time during which retirement benefits can be enjoyed. This results in such workers being made eligible for earlier access to pension benefits than otherwise available in that country’s general pension scheme...
Les régimes de retraite spéciaux pour les professions dangereuses ou pénibles existent de longue date. Depuis quelques temps, ils suscitent de multiples débats dans de nombreux pays de l’OCDE. Ces régimes ont pour origine l’idée selon laquelle les personnes qui exercent un métier dangereux ou pénible, l’exploitation minière souterraine par exemple, méritent un traitement particulier. Cette idée se justifie par le fait que ces métiers augmentent la mortalité et diminuent l’espérance de vie, réduisant ainsi la période pendant laquelle les personnes qui les exercent peuvent profiter de leurs prestations de retraite. C’est pourquoi elles ont le droit de partir à la retraite avant l’échéance fixée par le régime de retraite général national... Classification-JEL: H55; J81 Keywords: arduous job, conditions de travail, emploi à risque, hazardous job, pensions, pénibilité du travail, retraites, working conditions Creation-Date: 2009-08-10 Number: 91 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:91-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Maxime Ladaique Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: How Expensive is the Welfare State?: Gross and Net Indicators in the OECD Social Expenditure Database (SOCX) Abstract: This paper first presents information on trends and composition of social expenditure across the OECD. Gross public social expenditure on average across OECD increased from 16% of GDP in 1980 to 21% in 2005, of which public pensions (7% of GDP) and public health expenditure (6% of GDP) are the largest items. This paper then accounts for the effects of the tax system and private social expenditure which leads to a greater similarity in social expenditure-to-GDP ratios across countries and to a reassessment of the magnitude of welfare states. After accounting for the impact of taxation and private benefits, social expenditure (1) amounts to over 30% of GDP at factor cost in Belgium, Germany, and France and (2) ranges within a few percentage points of each other in Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and the United States.
Ce document présente les tendances et la composition des dépenses sociales des pays de l’OCDE. Les dépenses sociales publiques brutes on augmenté de 16 % du PIB en 1980 à 21 % du PIB en 2005, dont les retraites publiques (7 % du PIB) et les dépenses de santé publique (6 % du PIB) représentent les plus grandes catégories de dépenses en moyenne en 2005. Ce document examine ensuite les effets de l'intervention du gouvernement sur les dépenses sociales par le système fiscal et la prise en compte des prestations sociales privées, qui ont pour effet d’égaliser les ratios entre les niveaux des dépenses sociales et le PIB. Après la prise en compte des prestations sociales privées et de l’impact de la fiscalité, les dépenses sociales atteignent plus de 30 % du PIB aux coûts des facteurs en Belgique, Allemagne et France ; enfin les écarts entre les dépenses sociales en Autriche, Canada, Danemark, Finlande, Italie, Pays-Bas, Portugal et aux États-Unis ne sont que de quelques points de pourcentage. Classification-JEL: H2; H53 Keywords: private social spending, public welfare system, social policy, tax breaks with a social purpose, taxation of benefit income Creation-Date: 2009-11-13 Number: 92 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:92-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Justina A.V. Fischer Title: The Welfare Effects of Social Mobility Abstract: The question whether a socially mobile society is conducive to subjective well-being (SWB) has rarely been investigated. This paper fills this gap by analyzing the SWB effects of intergenerational earnings mobility and equality in education at the societal level. Using socio-demographic information on 44 000 individuals in 30 OECD countries obtained from the World Values Survey, this study shows that living in a socially mobile society is conducive to individual life satisfaction. Differentiating between perceived and actual social mobility, we find that both exert rather independent effects, particularly in their interplay with income inequality. We identify a positive interaction of perceived social mobility that mitigates its overall SWB lowering effect, supporting Alesina et al. (2004). In contrast, a high degree of actual social mobility yields an overall impact of income inequality that is SWB lowering, while for low social mobility the effect of inequality is positive. These interactions hold stronger for pre-transfer than post-transfer income inequality. Actual social mobility appears to be appreciated only by conservative persons, while leftist oriented individuals are indifferent. Robustness is tested using a world sample.
La question de savoir si une société socialement mobile est prédisposée au bien-être subjectif (SWB, d’après le sigle anglais) a rarement fait l’objet d’étude. Ce document vient combler ce manque en la matière en analysant les effets du SWB quant à la mobilité et l’égalité intergénérationnelle des gains dans l’éducation à un niveau sociétal. Cette étude s’est servie d’une information socio-démographique comptant 44 000 individus dans 30 pays membres de l’OCDE tirée de l’enquête World Values Survey. Cette étude montre que le fait de vivre dans une société socialement mobile est propice à une satisfaction de vie individuelle. En séparant la mobilité sociale perçue à celle qui est réelle, nous observons que les deux exercent une influence plutôt indépendante, en particulier dans leur action mutuelle avec les inégalités de revenus. Une interaction positive de mobilité sociale perçue est identifiée, celle-ci limitant son influence globale du bien-être subjectif à la baisse, selon Alesina et al. (2004). A contrario, un fort degré de mobilité sociale réelle génère une influence générale sur l’inégalité des revenus qui diminue le SWB alors que pour une faible mobilité sociale les effets de l’inégalité sont positifs. Ces relations réciproques sont plus solides pour des inégalités de revenus avant transferts qu’après transferts. La mobilité sociale réelle semble être appréciée seulement par les conservateurs, alors que les individus orientés plus à gauche sont indifférents. La robustesse est aussi examinée en utilisant un échantillon mondial. Classification-JEL: A14; D31; D63; I31; J62 Creation-Date: 2009-09-16 Number: 93 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:93-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thomas Liebig Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Jobs for Immigrants: Labour Market Integration in Norway Abstract: Evidence from many OECD countries shows that immigrants, in particular recent arrivals, tend to be especially affected by an economic downturn. The available tentative evidence on unemployment suggests that this is also the case in Norway in the current downturn, particularly with respect to the many recent labour migrants from the new EU member countries. Since this can have a lasting effect on their labour market outcomes, it is important that the integration of immigrants remains a priority for policy.
D’après les observations faites dans de nombreux pays de l’OCDE, les immigrés, en particulier les nouveaux arrivants, sont en général particulièrement touchés en cas de détérioration de la conjoncture économique. Les premières informations disponibles sur le chômage permettent de penser que c’est aussi le cas en Norvège au cours de la récession actuelle, en particulier pour les nombreux migrants de travail arrivés récemment. Cela pouvant affecter durablement leurs résultats sur le marché du travail, il est important que l’intégration des immigrés reste une priorité pour les pouvoirs publics. Au cours des années précédentes, le ralentissement de l’économie, les résultats au regard de l’emploi se sont clairement améliorés à la faveur d’une situation économique favorable, et à l’heure actuelle ils sont globalement plutôt positifs par rapport au passé. Même si la forte migration de travail venue d’Europe de l’Est a contribué à la hausse du taux d’emploi de la population immigrée dans son ensemble, les résultats de groupes de migrants de plus longue date se sont également améliorés. Classification-JEL: J12; J21; J61; J62; J68; J7; J8 Keywords: immigrants, integration, labour market, Norway Creation-Date: 2009-09-10 Number: 94 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:94-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Bassanini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Pascal Marianna Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Looking Inside the Perpetual-Motion Machine: Job and Worker Flows in OECD Countries Abstract: In the economic literature there is an increasing interest in the process of job creation and destruction as well of hirings and separations. Many studies suggest that idiosyncratic firm-level characteristics shape both job and worker flows in a similar way in all countries. Others argue that cross-country differences in terms of gross job flows are minor. However, these statements are usually based on the comparison of national estimates, typically collected on the basis of different definitions and collection protocols. By contrast, in this paper, we use crosscountry comparable data on both job and worker flows to examine key determinants of these flows and of their cross-country differences. We find that idiosyncratic firm (industry, firm age and size) and worker (age, gender, education) characteristics play an important role for both gross job and worker flows in all countries. Nevertheless, in contrast with part of the literature, we find that, even controlling for these idiosyncratic factors, cross-country differences concerning both gross job and worker flows appear large and of a similar magnitude. Both job and worker flows in countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom exceed those in certain continental European countries by a factor of two. Moreover, the variation of worker flows across different dimensions is well explained by the variation of job flows, suggesting that, to a certain extent, the two flows can be used as substitutes in cross-country analysis. Consistently, churning flows, that is flows originating by firms churning workers and employees quitting and being replaced, display much less variation across countries.
La littérature économique consacre un intérêt de plus en plus grand pour le processus de création et de destruction d’emplois ainsi que pour les flux d’embauches et de séparations. Plusieurs études soulignent que les caractéristiques propres aux entreprises façonnent les flux d’emplois et de main-d’œuvre de manière similaire dans tous les pays. D’autres soutiennent que les différences inter-pays des flux bruts d’emplois ne sont pas très grandes. Cependant, ces constats s’appuient généralement sur des comparaisons d’estimations nationales reposant sur différentes définitions et protocoles de collecte de données. En revanche, dans ce document, nous utilisons des données comparables entre les pays sur les flux d’emplois et de main-d’œuvre afin d’examiner les déterminants principaux de ces flux et des différences inter-pays. Nous trouvons que les caractéristiques propres aux entreprises (le secteur d’activité, l’âge et la taille des entreprises) et aux salariés (l’âge, le sexe et le niveau d’éducation) jouent un rôle important pour les flux d’emplois et de main-d’œuvre dans tous les pays. Néanmoins, contrairement à une partie de la littérature, nous trouvons que, même à structure constante pour ces caractéristiques, les différences inter-pays des flux d’emplois et de main-d’œuvre demeurent importantes et de même ampleur. Les flux d’emplois et de main-d’œuvre aux États-Unis et au Royaume-Uni sont deux fois plus importants que ceux observés dans certains pays d’Europe continentale. En outre, la variation des flux de main-d’œuvre selon différentes dimensions est bien expliquée par la variation des flux d’emplois, ce qui permet de suggérer, dans une certaine mesure, que les deux variables peuvent être utilisées comme des substituts dans les analyses inter-pays. En revanche, les flux de déplacement de la main d’oeuvre, résultant de la substitution des salariés sur les mêmes emplois opérée par les entreprises ou par les départs et remplacement de salariés, sont marqués par nettement moins de variation entre les pays. Classification-JEL: J23; J24; J63 Creation-Date: 2009-09-15 Number: 95 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:95-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Claudia Senik Author-Workplace-Name: Paris School of Economics Title: Income Distribution and Subjective Happiness: A Survey Abstract: This survey summarises the insights that the new literature based on subjective data has shed on the issue of income inequality and income comparisons. It reviews the various channels that relate income distribution and subjective well-being. It considers the welfare effect of income gaps in general, both in terms of the difference between individual income and the income of some relevant other, and with regard to generic income distribution. Concerning income comparisons, the general lesson is that it is useful to distinguish status effects from signal effects: income comparisons hurt, but they may also increase life satisfaction when they mean good news; this is all the more likely as the reference group is made of people who most likely share a common destiny. Concerning income distribution in general, the relationship with subjective well-being is generally found to be negative, with higher societal inequality being associated with lower subjective well-being. There are many possible pathways which may lie behind such an empirical finding. The first type of aversion to income inequality derives from self-centred motives, such as risk-aversion and prospects for upward mobility (POUM). Both stem from a perception of the income distribution as a ladder that one risks falling from or has a chance to climb. Attitudes to inequality are also sometimes found to be based on other-regarding preferences such as fairness and reciprocity, which are generally independent of the income position of the individual himself. An important point is that subjective attitudes are the joint output of preferences and beliefs concerning income distribution in society. The demand for redistribution is higher whenever people have strong preferences for equal outcomes or opportunities but believe that in the society in which they live, outcomes or opportunities are actually not equal. As illustrated by several studies, preferences and beliefs concerning income distribution are context dependent and are thus heterogeneous across countries and groups of the population.
Cet article présente une revue de la littérature consacrée au lien entre inégalités de revenu et bien-être subjectif. Elle résume les apports des études empiriques fondées sur l’exploitation des données subjectives disponibles dans les grandes enquêtes auprès de la population. Elle considère l’effet des écarts de revenu au sens étroit – comparaisons avec le revenu d’un groupe de référence – et au sens large – effet des inégalités de revenu en général. Les études relatives aux comparaisons de revenu mettent en lumière deux phénomènes différents : les effets de statut (envie), dont l’impact sur le bien-être subjectif est négatif, et les effets de signal, dont l’impact est positif. L’effet de signal est lié au contenu informationnel du revenu d’autrui ; il est d’autant plus important que les membres du groupe de référence partagent un grand nombre de caractéristiques productives, donc des perspectives professionnelles communes. Concernant la répartition générale des revenus dans la société, les travaux empiriques conduisent généralement à l’établissement d’une relation négative entre inégalité des revenus et bien-être subjectif. Les phénomènes en jeu sont multiples. Un premier type d’attitude vis-à-vis des inégalités de revenus relève de l’aversion au risque ou des perspectives de mobilité ascendante. Dans les deux cas, l’échelle des revenus est perçue par les individus d’un point de vue autocentré, en tant que chance d’ascension ou risque de chute. Cependant, un grand nombre de travaux empiriques suggère également l’existence de préférences concernant le revenu d’autrui. Plus précisément, l’attitude vis-à-vis des inégalités dépend de la conjonction entre les croyances et les préférences des agents concernant la formation des inégalités. La demande de redistribution est ainsi plus forte lorsque les agents expriment une préférence pour l’égalité des revenus ou des opportunités, mais estiment que cette égalité n’est pas réalisée dans les faits. Certaines études illustrent alors l’hétérogénéité des préférences et des croyances selon les pays et les groupes sociaux. Classification-JEL: C23; D61; D63; D64; H24; I31 Keywords: demand for income distribution, income comparisons, income distribution, subjective well-being Creation-Date: 2009-12-02 Number: 96 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:96-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thomas Liebig Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Sarah Widmaier Title: Children of Immigrants in the Labour Markets of EU and OECD Countries: An Overview Abstract: This document provides a first comparative overview of the presence and outcomes of the children of immigrants in the labour markets of OECD countries, based on a collection of data from 16 OECD countries with large immigrant populations. Its key findings are the following: • In about half of all OECD countries, children of immigrants - both native-born offspring of immigrants and foreign-born who immigrated before adulthood with their parents - account for ten or more percent of young adults (aged 20-29) in the labour market. • Most children of immigrants have parents from low- and middle-income countries, and the share with parents from such countries is larger among foreign-born children than among the nativeborn offspring of immigrants. This is a result of the diversification of migration flows over the past 20 years. • Among the native-born children of immigrants in European OECD countries, Turkey is the single most important country of parental origin, followed by Morocco. When comparing the countries of parental origin for the native- and the foreign-born children of immigrants, one observes in the European OECD countries a strong decline in the importance of the origin countries of the post-World War II wave of labour migration, in particular Turkey but also Morocco, Italy, Portugal and Pakistan. • In all countries except Germany and Switzerland, a large majority of the native-born children of immigrants have obtained the nationality of their countries of residence. • The OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has demonstrated lower assessment results for the children of immigrants in most European OECD countries. There are close links between PISA outcomes and educational attainment levels. In the countries in which children of migrants have large gaps in PISA-scores vis-à-vis children of natives, children of immigrants are also strongly overrepresented among those who are low-educated. • One observes a clear difference between the non-European OECD countries (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States) on the one hand and European OECD countries on the other hand. In the former, the children of migrants have education and labour market outcomes that tend to be at least at par with those of the children of natives. In the European OECD countries (with the exception of Switzerland), both education and labour market outcomes of the children of immigrants tend to be much less favourable. • Part of the differences in labour market outcomes observed in most European OECD countries is due to the fact that the children of immigrants tend to have a lower educational attainment than the children of natives. However, significant gaps remain in many of these countries even after correcting for differences in average educational attainment. • The remaining gaps are particularly large for the offspring of migrants from Turkey and from certain non-OECD countries such as Morocco. In all countries, children with parents from middle-and low-income countries have lower outcomes than children of immigrants from highincome countries. The differences are particularly large for young immigrant women. • On average over the OECD countries for which data are available, the children of immigrants have an unemployment rate that is about 1.6 times higher than that of the children of natives, for both genders. The children of immigrants also have lower employment rates – the gaps compared with the children of natives are about 8 percentage points for men and about 13 percentage points for women. • For women, one observes much better results for the native children of immigrants than for young immigrants, suggesting that having been fully raised and educated in the country of residence brings some additional benefit. However, this is not observed for men, where the native-born children of immigrants do not seem to fare better than the young immigrants, particularly after accounting for the lower educational attainment of the latter group. • The less favourable picture for the female children of migrants compared with their male counterparts is less clear-cut after controlling for socio-demographic characteristics, in particular marital status and number of children. Part of the “double disadvantage” for the female offspring of immigrants seems to be due to the fact that in the age range under consideration (20-29 years), they are overrepresented among those who are (already) married and have children. Indeed, once controlling for this, native-born women who have parents from the Maghreb region or Southern Europe, as well those with Turkish parental origin, tend to have higher employment rates - relative to comparable natives - than their male counterparts. • When in employment, children of immigrants are in occupations similar to those of the children of natives. They are also widely spread throughout the economy, but tend to remain underrepresented in the public sector.
Les principales conclusions qui s’en dégagent sont résumées ci-dessous. • Dans la moitié environ de l’ensemble des pays de l’OCDE, les enfants d’immigrés (aussi bien ceux nés dans le pays hôte de parents immigrés que ceux nés à l’étranger et qui ont immigré avec leurs parents avant d’avoir atteint l’âge adulte) représentent au moins dix pour cent des jeunes adultes (jeunes âgés de 20 à 29 ans) présents sur le marché du travail. • Les parents des enfants immigrés sont le plus souvent originaires de pays à revenu faible ou intermédiaire, et la proportion d’enfants dont les parents sont dans ce cas est plus forte parmi ceux qui sont nés à l’étranger que parmi les enfants nés dans le pays hôte. • Parmi les enfants nés dans un pays européen de l’OCDE de parents immigrés, ceux dont les parents sont originaires de Turquie sont les plus nombreux, suivis des enfants d’origine marocaine. Quand on compare les pays d’origine des parents immigrés d’enfants nés dans le pays hôte et d’enfants nés à l’étranger, on observe, dans les pays européens de l’OCDE, un fort recul de l’importance des pays d’origine correspondant à la vague de migration de travail de l’après- Deuxième Guerre mondiale. Cette observation concerne notamment la Turquie, mais aussi le Maroc, l’Italie, le Portugal et le Pakistan. • Dans tous les pays hormis l’Allemagne et la Suisse, une grande majorité des enfants nés sur le territoire de parents immigrés ont obtenu la nationalité de leur pays de résidence. • Le Programme international de l’OCDE pour le suivi des acquis des élèves (PISA) a démontré que, dans la plupart des pays européens de l’Organisation, les enfants d’immigrés obtenaient de piètres résultats lors des évaluations. Il existe un lien étroit entre les acquis scolaires mesurés par PISA et les niveaux d’études atteints. Dans les pays où l’on relève d’importantes disparités entre les enfants d’immigrés et les enfants de parents autochtones du point de vue des notes obtenues lors des tests PISA, les premiers sont aussi fortement surreprésentés parmi les personnes peu instruites. • On relève une nette différence entre les pays non européens de l’OCDE (Australie, Canada, États-Unis et Nouvelle-Zélande), d’une part, et les pays européens de l’Organisation, d’autre part. Dans le premier groupe, les enfants d’immigrés affichent généralement, au regard de l’éducation et de l’emploi, des résultats au moins égaux à ceux des enfants de parents autochtones. Mais dans les pays européens de l’OCDE (à l’exception de la Suisse), les résultats des enfants d’immigrés au regard de l’éducation et de l’emploi sont généralement moins bons. Classification-JEL: J13; J15; J21; L29 Creation-Date: 2009-10-29 Number: 97 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:97-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nicola Duell Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: David Grubb Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Shruti Singh Author-Workplace-Name: UK Department of Work and Pensions Title: Activation Policies in Finland Abstract: This report examines the performance of the Public Employment Service (PES) and the effectiveness of activation strategies in Finland. It covers the role of the key actors, the placement function of the PES, the structure of out-of-work benefits and the related incentives and disincentives for taking up work, and provides an overview of the different active labour market programmes (ALMPs).
Ce rapport examine la performance du Service Public de l'Emploi (SPE) et l'efficacité des stratégies d'activation en Finlande. Il analyse le rôle des acteurs clés, la fonction de placement du SPE, les dispositifs d'indemnisation de la population d'âge actif non occupée et leurs effets sur la motivation de reprendre une activité ; il fournit un aperçu des différents programmes actifs du marché du travail (PAMT). Classification-JEL: H53; H83; I38; J08; J63; J65 Creation-Date: 2009-11-23 Number: 98 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:98-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Justina A.V. Fischer Title: Happiness and Age Cycles - Return to Start...?: On the Functional Relationship between Subjective Well-Being and Age Abstract: Previous happiness research has explicitly assumed that subjective well-being is U-shaped in age. This paper sheds new light on this issue testing several functional forms. Using micro data from the World Values Survey on 44 000 persons in 30 economically advanced OECD countries with long life expectancies, we reveal a hyperbolic functional form. We find that life satisfaction reaches another local maximum around the age of 83, with a level identical to that of a 26-year old. This hyperbolic well-beingage relation is robust to the inclusion of cohort effects. We test this relationship for each OECD country separately, and corroborate the functional form using a sample of non-OECD countries.
Jusqu’à présent, la recherche sur le bonheur est partie du principe que le bien-être subjectif suit une distribution de l’âge en forme de U. Ce document apporte de nouvelles informations sur cette question en testant plusieurs formes de fonctions. En utilisant les données individuelles du World Values Survey sur 44 000 personnes dans 30 pays de l’OCDE avec des espérances de vie longues, nous proposons une fonction hyperbolique. Nous trouvons que la satisfaction de vie atteint un autre niveau maximum à 83 ans, un niveau identique à celui de l’âge de 26 ans. Cette relation hyperbolique avec l’âge est robuste en incluant les effets de cohortes. Nous testons cette relation pour chaque pays de l’OCDE séparément, et l’utilisons en utilisant une sélection de pays non membres de l’OCDE. Classification-JEL: A14; D61; I3; I31; J14 Creation-Date: 2009-11-18 Number: 99 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:99-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Minimum-Income Benefits in OECD Countries: Policy Design, Effectiveness and Challenges Abstract: Almost all OECD countries operate comprehensive minimum-income programmes for working-age individuals, either as last-resort safety nets alongside primary income replacement benefits, or as the principal instrument for delivering social protection. Such safety-net benefits aim primarily at providing an acceptable standard of living for families unable to earn sufficient incomes from other sources. This paper provides an overview of social assistance and other minimum-income programmes in OECD countries, summarises their main features, and highlights a number of current policy challenges.
Presque tous les pays de l’OCDE ont des programmes de revenu-minimum globaux envers les individus en âge de travailler, soit comme des filets de protection de dernier recours accompagnant des prestations principales de remplacement de revenu, soit comme instruments principaux pour apporter une protection sociale. De tels filets de protection ont pour but principalement d’apporter un standard de vie acceptable pour les familles incapables de gagner suffisamment de revenus d’autres sources. Ce document présente un aperçu de l’assistance sociale et d’autres programmes dans les pays de l’OCDE, résume leurs principales caractéristiques et met l’accent sur un nombre de défis politiques actuels. Classification-JEL: D31; H31; H53; I38 Keywords: assistance sociale, impôt sur le revenu négatif, negative income tax, pauvreté, poverty, protection sociale à l’emploi, social assistance, welfare to work Creation-Date: 2010-01-07 Number: 100 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:100-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Murray Leibbrandt Author-Workplace-Name: University of Cape Town Author-Name: Ingrid Woolard Author-Workplace-Name: University of Cape Town Author-Name: Arden Finn Author-Workplace-Name: University of Cape Town Author-Name: Jonathan Argent Author-Workplace-Name: University of Cape Town Title: Trends in South African Income Distribution and Poverty since the Fall of Apartheid Abstract: This report presents a detailed analysis of changes in both poverty and inequality since the fall of Apartheid, and the potential drivers of such developments. Use is made of national survey data from 1993, 2000 and 2008. These data show that South Africa’s high aggregate level of income inequality increased between 1993 and 2008. The same is true of inequality within each of South Africa’s four major racial groups. Income poverty has fallen slightly in the aggregate but it persists at acute levels for the African and Coloured racial groups. Poverty in urban areas has increased. There have been continual improvements in non-monetary well-being (for example, access to piped water, electricity and formal housing) over the entire post-Apartheid period up to 2008. From a policy point of view it is important to flag the fact that intra-African inequality and poverty trends increasingly dominate aggregate inequality and poverty in South Africa. Race-based redistribution may become less effective over time relative to policies addressing increasing inequality within each racial group and especially within the African group. Rising inequality within the labourmarket – due both to rising unemployment and rising earnings inequality – lies behind rising levels of aggregate inequality. These labour market trends have prevented the labour market from playing a positive role in poverty alleviation. Social assistance grants (mainly the child support grant, the disability grant and the old-age pension) alter the levels of inequality only marginally but have been crucial in reducing poverty among the poorest households. There are still a large number of families that are ineligible for grants because of the lack of appropriate documents. This suggests that there is an important role for the Department of Home Affairs in easing the process of vital registration.
Ce rapport présente une analyse détaillée de l’évolution de la pauvreté et des inégalités depuis la fin de l’Apartheid et des facteurs susceptibles de l’expliquer. Les comparaisons ont été effectuées sur la base des dernières micro-données comparables sur les ménages de 1993, 2000 et 2008. Ces données montrent que le niveau global des inégalités de revenu de l’Afrique du Sud a continué d’augmenter entre 1993 et 2008. Cette même réalité des inégalités se retrouvent également dans chacun des quatre groupes ethniques d’Afrique du Sud. La pauvreté a légèrement chuté dans sa globalité, mais persiste gravement parmi les groupes ethniques africains et interraciaux. La pauvreté en zone urbaine a augmenté. L’amélioration du bien-être non monétaire (accès à l’eau courante, à l’électricité, à un logement formel etc.) s’est poursuivie jusqu’en 2008. D’un point de vue de politique publique, il est important de signaler que les inégalités et la pauvreté au sein de la population africaine ont et auront de plus en plus un poids prépondérant dans les inégalités et la pauvreté globales du pays. L’augmentation des inégalités au sein du marché du travail – due à la fois à la hausse du chômage et à l’augmentation des inégalités de salaires –, provient de l’augmentation du niveau global des inégalités. Ces tendances ont empêché le marché du travail de jouer son rôle positif en termes de réduction de la pauvreté. Les prestations d’aide sociale (essentiellement l’allocation pour enfant à charge et les pensions d’invalidité et de vieillesse) n’ont qu’une incidence marginale sur les inégalités et la pauvreté. Toutefois, ces transferts réduisent réellement l’écart de pauvreté, en particulier parmi les ménages les plus pauvres. Un grand nombre de familles qui pourraient prétendre aux allocations familiales ne font pas valoir leurs droits parce qu’elles ne disposent pas des pièces justificatives requises. Par conséquent, le ministère des Affaires intérieures (Department of Home Affairs) a un rôle important à jouer en ce sens qu’il peut faciliter le processus d’enregistrement à l’état civil pour que tous les enfants puissent accéder aux prestations d’aide sociale auxquelles ils ont droit. Classification-JEL: D31; I32; I38 Creation-Date: 2010-05-28 Number: 101 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:101-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jack Habib Author-Name: Judith King Author-Name: Assaf Ben Shoham Author-Name: Abraham Wolde-Tsadick Author-Name: Karen Lasky Title: Labour Market and Socio-Economic Outcomes of the Arab-Israeli Population Abstract: Ce rapport s’intéresse à certains des principaux facteurs à prendre en compte concernant la situation des arabes israéliens sur le marché du travail : les écarts dans le capital humain (éducation, connaissance de l'informatique, maîtrise de l’hébreu) ; le lieu de résidence, la périphérie offrant moins de possibilités d’emploi ; la place traditionnellement limitée accordée aux femmes ; et la discrimination quant à l'accès aux ressources publiques d'une part et aux pratiques des employeurs de l'autre. Deux facteurs supplémentaires affectent en particulier les tendances en cours : l’évolution du marché du travail suite au changement radical vers une économie à forte intensité technologique et la réorientation de secteurs entiers de l’industrie traditionnelle, et l'augmentation significative du nombre de travailleurs étrangers en Israël, qui, dans des secteurs comme l'agriculture et le bâtiment rivalisent directement avec les ouvriers arabes les moins instruits.
Ce rapport s’intéresse à certains des principaux facteurs à prendre en compte concernant la situation des arabes israéliens sur le marché du travail : les écarts dans le capital humain (éducation, connaissance de l'informatique, maîtrise de l’hébreu) ; le lieu de résidence, la périphérie offrant moins de possibilités d’emploi ; la place traditionnellement limitée accordée aux femmes ; et la discrimination quant à l'accès aux ressources publiques d'une part et aux pratiques des employeurs de l'autre. Deux facteurs supplémentaires affectent en particulier les tendances en cours : l’évolution du marché du travail suite au changement radical vers une économie à forte intensité technologique et la réorientation de secteurs entiers de l’industrie traditionnelle, et l'augmentation significative du nombre de travailleurs étrangers en Israël, qui, dans des secteurs comme l'agriculture et le bâtiment rivalisent directement avec les ouvriers arabes les moins instruits. Classification-JEL: I38; J15; J21; J31 Creation-Date: 2010-03-18 Number: 102 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:102-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Adriana Kemp Title: Reforming Policies on Foreign Workers in Israel Abstract: Since the early 1990s, Israel has enacted a managed migration scheme for low-skilled foreign workers. Originally designed to replace Palestinian cross-border workers from the Occupied Territories in the secondary labour market, in 2007 foreign workers comprised 8.7% of the private-sector labour force, 40% of them without permits. Foreign workers are employed in three major sectors: construction, agriculture and home-care for the elderly. The latter has become the largest and fastest-growing sector employing foreign workers, mainly women. The Israeli temporary labour migration scheme is characterised by a strong dependency of certain sectors on foreign workers; disengagement of governmental agencies from direct involvement in recruitment, inspection of work conditions, effective enforcement of labour laws, and provision of services for foreign workers; a strong emphasis on temporariness coupled with lengthy and sometimes indefinite extension of possible stay (up to 63 months and potentially more); and lastly, by an entrenched client politics that guides policies on quota setting, permit allocation and employer subsidies. Recent government decisions that seek to overcome the distorting effects of the scheme on the Israeli labour market, while tempering deep-rooted norms that violate workers' labour and human rights, are heading in the right direction. However, they are also destined to fail if the scheme is not substantially revised in all its parts rather than through a patchwork of focused and segmented measures.
Depuis le début des années 1990, Israël a promulgué un système de gestion de l’immigration des travailleurs étrangers peu qualifiés, initialement conçu pour remplacer les travailleurs transfrontaliers des territoires palestiniens, occupés dans le marché secondaire du travail. En 2007, les travailleurs étrangers représentaient 8,7% de la force de travail du secteur privé, dont 40% étaient en situation irrégulière. Les travailleurs étrangers sont employés principalement dans trois secteurs : le BTP, l’agriculture et les soins à domicile pour les personnes âgées. Ce dernier secteur est devenu le plus important et a connu la plus forte croissance de l’emploi des travailleurs étrangers, principalement des femmes. Le régime temporaire des migration de travail en Israël se caractérise par une forte dépendance de certains secteurs envers les travailleurs étrangers; un désengagement des organismes gouvernementaux dans le processus de recrutement, la surveillance des conditions de travail, l’exécution effective des réglementations du travail, et les services de soutien aux travailleurs étrangers ; l’accent mis sur le caractère temporaire du séjour, malgré les possibilités d’extension parfois infinies (jusqu’à 63 mois et plus) et, enfin, par une politique clientéliste persistante guidée par la fixation de quotas, l’attribution des permis et des subventions à l’employeur. Quelques décisions récentes du gouvernement visant à neutraliser les effets néfastes de ce système de gestion du marché du travail israélien, tout en tempérant les normes profondément enracinées qui violent les droits du travail et de l’homme, vont dans la bonne direction. Cependant, elles seront aussi vouées à l’échec si l’ensemble du système n’est pas sensiblement revu, à la place d’un patchwork de mesures ciblées et segmentées. Classification-JEL: F22; O15 Keywords: binding system, closed skies, elderly home-care, foreign workers scheme, human trafficking, Israel, Palestinian non-citizen workers, private brokers Creation-Date: 2010-03-19 Number: 103 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:103-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: John Gal Author-Name: Mimi Ajzenstadt Author-Name: Asher Ben-Arieh Author-Name: Roni Holler Author-Name: Nadine Zielinsky Title: Israeli Child Policy and Outcomes Abstract: This report presents an overview of child policy in Israel. It covers a wide range of services and policies that are intended to further the wellbeing of children in Israel or that have an impact upon the wellbeing of children, including the fields of education, health, cash transfers, taxation and personal social services. In addition, the labour market and policies linked to work and family reconciliation are discussed. The report also offers a brief overview of the context in which these policies and services developed, and their consequences, with a special emphasis on child poverty. This is due to the unusually high level of poverty among children in Israel. The report concludes with a discussion of the factors that have an impact upon the degree of effectiveness of child policies in Israel or, in the case of child poverty, upon their limited effectiveness. This discussion is followed by a number of policy recommendations intended to help policies and services to improve children’s wellbeing in Israeli society.
Ce rapport présente un aperçu des politiques de l’enfant en Israël. Il couvre une large gamme de services et de politiques qui sont destinées à augmenter ou à influencer le bien-être des enfants en Israël, aussi bien dans les domaines éducatifs, de la santé, des transferts d’argent, des impôts et des services sociaux destinés aux personnes. Le rapport discute en outre les politiques visant à réconcilier le travail et la vie de famille. Il offre aussi un bref aperçu du contexte dans lequel ces politiques et services se sont développés et leurs conséquences, en mettant en particulier l’accent sur la pauvreté des enfants qui atteint un niveau exceptionnel dans le pays. Le rapport se termine par une discussion des facteurs qui influent sur l’efficacité des politiques destinés aux enfants en Israël ou, dans le cas de la pauvreté des enfants, sur leur efficacité limitée. Un certain nombre de recommandations suivent sur les politiques et les services destinés à améliorer le bien-être des enfants dans la société israélienne. Classification-JEL: H2; H3; H4; H5; I2; I3; J1 Keywords: child policy, education, health work and labour reconciliation, Israel, social policy Creation-Date: 2010-03-18 Number: 104 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:104-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rafal Chomik Author-Workplace-Name: Department of Work and Pensions Author-Name: Edward Whitehouse Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Trends in Pension Eligibility Ages and Life Expectancy, 1950-2050 Abstract: The pensionable age is the most visible parameter of retirement-income systems. This paper surveys pensionable ages in the OECD for a period of a century: back to 1950 and forward to 2050. Average pensionable age in OECD countries dropped by nearly two years during the second half of the 20th century to 62.5 for men and 61.1 for women. Legislation already in place will increase it almost to 65 for both sexes by 2050. At the same time, life expectancy has increased in most countries at most times. Between 1960 and the turn of the century, life expectancy after pensionable age is grew from 13.4 to 17.3 years for men and 16.8 to 22.1 years for women on average in OECD countries. However, life expectancy after normal pension age is projected to reach 20.3 and 24.6 years (for men and women respectively) in 2050. This continued increase is projected despite many OECD countries having already legislated for phased increases in the pension age in the future.
L'âge de la retraite est le paramètre le plus visible des systèmes de retraite. Ce document passe en revue les changements dans l'âge de la retraite des pays de l'OCDE sur une période d'environ un siècle: de 1950 jusqu'en 2050. La moyenne d'âge de la retraite dans les pays de l'OCDE a chuté de près de deux ans durant la seconde moitié du 20ème siècle s'établissant à 62,5 pour les hommes et 61,1 pour les femmes. En considérant la législation déjà en place, dans les pays de l'OCDE, pour les années à venir, il augmentera de nouveau, s'établissant à environ 65 pour les deux sexes d'ici à 2050. Dans le même temps, l'espérance de vie a augmenté dans la plupart des pays la plupart du temps. Entre 1960 et 2000, l'espérance de vie, après avoir atteint l'âge de départ à la retraite est passé de 13,4 à 17,3 ans pour les hommes et de 16,8 à 22,1 ans pour les femmes en moyenne dans les pays de l'OCDE. Cependant cette augmentation ne semble pas avoir pris fin: L'espérance de vie après l'âge normal de la retraite devrait atteindre 20,3 et 24,6 ans (pour les hommes et les femmes respectivement) en 2050. Cette augmentation continue est prévue dans de nombreux pays de l'OCDE nonobstant le fait que la plupart des ceux-ci aient déjà légiféré pour tenir compte de l'augmentation progressive de l'âge de retraite à l'avenir. Classification-JEL: H55; J11; J14; J26 Creation-Date: 2010-10-04 Number: 105 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:105-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stefano Scarpetta Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Author-Name: Anne Sonnet Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Author-Name: Thomas Manfredi Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Title: Montée du chômage des jeunes dans la crise : Comment éviter un impact négatif à long terme sur toute une génération ? Abstract: Les jeunes ont été très sévèrement touchés par la crise économique globale. Dans la zone OCDE, le taux de chômage des jeunes (15-24) a progressé de près de 6 points de pourcentage entre fin 2007 et fin 2009 pour atteindre près de19 %. Il y a actuellement environ 15 millions de jeunes au chômage dans la zone OCDE, soit environ 4 millions de plus que fin 2007. Dans des pays comme la France et l’Italie, environ un jeune actif sur quatre se retrouve au chômage, alors qu’en Espagne, c’est le cas pour plus de 40% d’entre eux. Creation-Date: 2010-04-14 Number: 106 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:106-FR Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stefano Scarpetta Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Anne Sonnet Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Thomas Manfredi Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Rising Youth Unemployment During The Crisis: How to Prevent Negative Long-term Consequences on a Generation? Abstract: The global economic crisis has hit youth very hard. In the OECD area, the youth (15-24) unemployment rate rose by 6 percentage points in the two years to the end of 2009, to reach almost 19%. There are currently nearly 15 million youth unemployed in the OECD area, about four million more than at the end of 2007. And in countries like France and Italy, about one active youth in four is unemployed, while in Spain more than 40% of them are jobless. Creation-Date: 2010-04-14 Number: 106 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:106-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Bassanini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Andrea Garnero Author-Name: Pascal Marianna Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Sébastien Martin Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Institutional Determinants of Worker Flows: A Cross-Country/Cross-Industry Approach Abstract: There is little cross-country comparative evidence on the way labour market institutions shape gross job and worker flows, by and large because comparable data for many countries are scarce. By using a unique harmonised dataset on hirings and separations at the industry-level for a large majority of OECD countries, we fill this gap, by analysing the role of a number of labour and product market institutions in shaping cross-country differences in gross worker flows. In order to identify the effect of policies and institutions we consider an industry-level difference-in-difference approach. The basic premise of this approach is that the effect of a particular policy on gross job flows is greater in industries where the policy is more likely to constrain firm behaviour. We check, however, the robustness of our results using more standard cross-country/time-series estimates. The richness of the data available to us allows estimating the impact of the institutions also on the transitions from job to job, the transitions from job to nonemployment and the transitions from non-employment to jobs. We find that cross-country differences in job protection for open-ended contracts and unemployment benefits can explain a large share of crosscountry variation in gross worker flows. However, the effect of the former is essentially limited to job-tojob flows.
Il y a peu de résultats comparatifs à travers les pays sur la manière dont les institutions du marché du travail façonnent les flux bruts d’emplois et de main d’oeuvre, en raison d’un manque de données comparables pour un certain nombre de pays. Cet article comble cet écart, en s’appuyant sur une base de données harmonisées sur les embauches et les cessations d‘emplois au niveau des secteurs d’activité pour un grand nombre de pays de l’OCDE, et en analysant comment un certain nombre d’institutions nationales des marchés du travail et des produits façonnent les écarts de réallocation de main d’oeuvre entre les pays. Afin d’identifier l’effet des politiques et des institutions nationales, nous considérons un modèle de différence en différences au niveau des secteurs d’activité. Le principe de base de cette méthode est que l’effet d’une certaine politique sur le flux brut d’emplois est supérieur dans les industries où cette politique est de nature à imposer une contrainte sur le comportement des entreprises. Nous vérifions, cependant, la robustesse des résultats en utilisant des estimations plus standards en coupe transversale et série temporelle. La richesse des données disponibles permet également l’estimation de l’impact des institutions sur les transitions d’un emploi à l’autre, les transitions d’un emploi au non-emploi et les transitions du nonemploi vers l’emploi. Nous trouvons que les différences inter-pays dans la protection de l’emploi pour les contrats à durée indéterminée et les prestations de chômage peuvent expliquer une large proportion des variations inter-pays des flux bruts de main d’oeuvre. Cependant, l’effet du premier est essentiellement limité aux flux d’un emploi à l’autre. Classification-JEL: J23; J24; J63 Keywords: cross-country data, job-to-job transitions, labour market institutions, worker flows Creation-Date: 2010-07-06 Number: 107 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:107-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anna Christina D'Addio Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Earnings of Men and Women Working in the Private Sector: Enriched Data for Pensions and Tax-Benefit Modeling Abstract: The OECD’s “Average-Wage” (AW) concept is commonly used as a benchmark for tax-benefit and pension modeling. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether it is possible to use richer sets of earnings data in order to customize these modeling exercises to the situation of different groups of workers, such as high or low-earning men or women. We first take stock of available sources of earnings distribution data and provide a careful assessment of measurement and definitional differences relative to the AW. In a second step, information on the shape of earnings distributions in OECD countries is used to derive synthetic distributions around the AW, distinguishing between the earnings of men and women. We argue that this pragmatic approach yields data that allow extending the scope of tax-benefit and pensions modelling. Moreover, it does so in a way that is consistent with past modeling exercises that relied on the AW. We highlight data quality issues and discuss the potential limitations of the imputed AW-consistent earnings distributions.
Le concept de salaire moyen de l’OCDE (SM) est couramment utilisé comme référence pour la modélisation des impôs/prestations et des retraites. Le but de ce document est d'examiner s’il est possible d’utiliser de plus grands ensembles de données sur les salaires afin d’adapter ces exercices de modélisation à la situation de différents groupes d’actifs, tels que les hommes et les femmes ayant des revenus élevés ou bas. Dans un premier temps, on utilise les sources disponibles sur la répartition des revenus et on fournit une évaluation précise des différences de mesure et de définition concernant le salaire moyen, en faisant une distinction entre le revenu des hommes et celui des femmes. Selon nous, cette approche pragmatique permet d’obtenir des données qui dépassent le but fixé par la modélisation des impôts/prestation et des retraites. De plus, elle le fait en compatibilité avec les exercices de modélisation précédents qui se fondaient sur le SM. Nous mettons en évidence la question de la qualité des données et discutons des possibles limites de la répartition des revenus imputées sur les salaire moyens. Classification-JEL: J31 Creation-Date: 2010-08-31 Number: 108 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:108-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Edward Whitehouse Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Decomposing Notional Defined-Contribution Pensions: Experience of OECD Countries' Reforms Abstract: This paper compares notional defined-contribution pension schemes (also known as notional accounts) with two alternative designs of earnings-related pension schemes: points systems and definedbenefit plans. It examines, in detail, four economic advantages of notional accounts that deliver retirement incomes in an equitable and economically efficient manner. The issue of equity arises in the treatment of people who draw their pensions at different ages and contribute for a different number of years. The issue of economic efficiency arises because pension systems can and do distort individual decisions to work and save. First, benefits are based on lifetime earnings, rather than a subset of “best” or “final” years’ pay. Secondly, an extra year’s contribution gives rise to an additional benefit. Thirdly, benefits are reduced to reflect the longer expected duration of payment for people who retire early and, similarly, increased for people who retire late. Finally, benefits are reduced as life expectancy increases, again to reflect the longer duration for which benefits would be paid. An analysis of OECD countries’ pension systems – of all different types – shows that most have already achieved most of these objectives, but without adopting notional accounts.
Ce papier compare les systèmes de retraite à comptes notionnels avec deux systèmes alternatifs assis sur les salaires : les systèmes à points et les systèmes à cotisations définies. Il examine, en détail, quatre avantages économiques des comptes notionnels qui permettent de pourvoir des revenus de retraite dans une manière équitable et efficace du point de vue économique. La question de l'équité se présente dans le traitement de gens qui obtiennent leurs retraites aux âges différents et contribuent pendant des périodes différentes. La question de l'efficacité économique se présente parce que les systèmes de retraite peut et en faites déforment les décisions individuelles de travail et d’épargne. Premièrement, les avantages sont fondés sur les gains tout au long de la vie, au lieu d'un sous-ensemble de salaires de « meilleures » ou «dernières l » année de travail. Deuxièmement, le fait de cotiser pendant une année supplémentaire engendre une augmentation du montant du revenu de retraite. Troisièmement, les prestations de retraite sont réduites pour prendre en compte la plus longue durée sur laquelle s’étaleront les paiements pour les individus qui partent plus tôt à la retraite, et symétriquement elles sont augmentées pour les individus qui partent à la retraite plus tard. Enfin, les prestations de retraite sont réduites à l’augmentation de l’espérance de vie, pour prendre en compte une nouvelle fois la plus longue période sur laquelle les prestations de retraites seront versées. Une analyse des systèmes de retraite des pays de l'OCDE – de différents types – montre que la plupart de ceux-ci ont atteint ces objectifs, sans l’adoption d’un système à comptes notionnels. Classification-JEL: H55; J26 Creation-Date: 2010-10-22 Number: 109 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:109-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Olivier Bargain Author-Workplace-Name: University College, Dublin Author-Name: Andreas Peichl Author-Workplace-Name: Institute for the Study of Labor Author-Name: Sebastien Siegloch Author-Workplace-Name: Institute for the Study of Labor Title: Distributional Consequences of Labor Demand Adjustments to a Downturn: A Model-Based Approach with Application to Germany 2008-09 Abstract: Macro-level changes can have substantial effects on the distribution of resources at the household level. While it is possible to speculate about which groups are likely to be hardest-hit, detailed distributional studies are still largely backward-looking. This paper suggests a straight forward approach to gauge the distributional and scale implications of large output changes at an early stage. We illustrate the method with an evaluation of the impact of the 2008-2009 crisis in Germany. We take as a starting point a very detailed administrative matched employer-employee dataset to estimate labor demand and predict the effects of output shocks at a disaggregated level. The predicted employment effects are then transposed to household-level micro data, in order to analyze the incidence of rising unemployment and reduced working hours on poverty and inequality. We focus on two alternative scenarios of the labor demand adjustment process, one based on reductions in hours (intensive margin) and close to the German experience, and the other assuming extensive margin adjustments that take place through layoffs (close to the US situation). Our results suggest that the distributional and scale consequences are less severe when labor demand reacts along the intensive margin.
Les changements au niveau macroéconomique peuvent exercer des effets importants sur la répartition des ressources au niveau des ménages. Alors qu’on peut conjecturer des catégories qui risquent d’être le plus fortement touchées, les études détaillées sur la distribution des revenus sont en grande partie rétrospectives. Ce document propose une approche directe pour mesurer les implications de la répartition et l’ampleur des évolutions d’ensemble à un stade précoce. La méthode est illustrée par une évaluation de l’impact de la crise de 2008-2009 en Allemagne. On utilise comme point de départ un ensemble de données administratives employeur/employé pour estimer la demande d’emploi et prédire les effets des chocs à un niveau détaillé. Les effets attendus sur l'emploi sont ensuite transposés aux micro-données au niveau du ménage de manière à analyser l’incidence de l’augmentation du chômage et de la réduction des heures de travail sur la pauvreté et l’inégalité. . Deux scénarios sur le processus d’ajustement de la demande d’emploi sont étudiés : un scénario sur la réduction des heures de travail (marge intensive), proche de l’expérience allemande ; et un scénario qui suppose des ajustements intensifs des marges par le biais des licenciements (proche de la situation existant aux États-Unis). Les résultats laissent penser que les conséquences sur la répartition et l’ampleur du phénomène sont moins sévères quand la demande d’emploi réagit selon la marge intensive Classification-JEL: D58; H24; H60; J23 Keywords: crisis, income distribution, labour demand, tax-benefit system Creation-Date: 2010-10-04 Number: 110 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:110-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lawrence M. Berger Author-Workplace-Name: University of Wisconsin Author-Name: Jane Waldfogel Author-Workplace-Name: Columbia University Title: Economic Determinants and Consequences of Child Maltreatment Abstract: Substantial numbers of children in the advanced industrialized countries experience child abuse and neglect each year, resulting in considerable social, emotional, and economic costs to both the children themselves and to their societies as a whole. Yet, whereas scholars and policymakers have grown increasingly concerned with promoting child well-being, particularly among low income children, limited attention has been paid to child maltreatment. This paper reviews the existing research on the economic determinants and consequences of child abuse and neglect, drawing on theoretical and empirical studies from a wide range of disciplines. We first provide background information about child maltreatment in advanced industrialized countries. Next, we present current theory and empirical evidence regarding links between low income and child maltreatment. We then turn to the evidence on the long-term consequences of maltreatment. Finally, we conclude with a brief discussion of interventions to prevent abuse and neglect. We argue that results from a large number of studies clearly imply that economic resources play an important role in influencing risk for child abuse and (particularly) child neglect, although conclusive causal evidence has thus far been elusive. Furthermore, existing evidence that child abuse and neglect impose tremendous long-term costs both to victims and to society as a whole justifies heightened efforts to reduce child maltreatment. Finally, although a few proven programs exist, the evidence base with regard to effective policies and programs for preventing maltreatment is generally quite weak. Additional rigorous research across the advanced industrialized countries is necessary to promote a better understanding of the economic determinants and consequences of abuse and neglect, as well as the efficacy of policies and programs aimed at preventing child maltreatment and ameliorating its adverse effects. Keywords: abuse and neglect, child well-being, children Creation-Date: 2011-04-05 Number: 111 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:111-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nicola Duell Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Peter Tergeist Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Ursula Bazant Author-Name: Sylvie Cimper Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Activation Policies in Switzerland Abstract: This report examines the performance of public employment services and the effectiveness of activation strategies in Switzerland. It covers the role of the key actors in labour market policy, the placement function of the Public Employment Service (PES), the structure of out-of-work benefits and the related incentives and disincentives for taking up work, and discusses the main features of active labour market programmes (ALMPs)... Classification-JEL: H53; H83; I38; J08; J63; J65; J68 Creation-Date: 2010-10-21 Number: 112 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:112-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nicola Duell Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: David Grubb Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Shruti Singh Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Peter Tergeist Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Activation Policies in Japan Abstract: The Japanese labour market is characterised by high employment rates for men and older workers, and a low unemployment rate. Over the past two decades, female participation has risen, while disparities in the labour market conditions of workers have grown. Further efforts are needed to promote increases in female and older-worker employment rates so as to combat the trend decline in the working-age population, and to reduce dualism in the labour market.
Le marché du travail japonais est caractérisé par des taux d’emploi de travailleurs masculins et de travailleurs âgés élevés ainsi que d’un taux de chômage bas. Au cours des deux dernières décennies le taux d’activité des femmes a augmenté, alors que pour l’ensemble des travailleurs les disparités des conditions du marché du travail se sont accentuées. Des efforts supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour augmenter davantage les taux d’emploi des femmes et des travailleurs âgés, afin de faire face à la baisse de la population en âge de travailler, et réduire le dualisme du marché du travail. Classification-JEL: H53; H83; I38; J08; J63; J65; J68 Creation-Date: 2010-12-07 Number: 113 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:113-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jean-Christophe Dumont Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Author-Name: Gilles Spielvogel Author-Name: Sarah Widmaier Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Title: Les migrants internationaux dans les pays développés, émergents et en développement : Elargissement du profil Abstract: La croissance de la mobilité internationale souligne l’importance de données internationales comparables pour décrire la migration mondiale et ses caractéristiques, non seulement dans les pays de destination mais aussi dans les pays d’origine. Ce document donne une image détaillée des populations émigrée et immigrée dans les années 2000 à partir de la nouvelle base de données bilatérales mondiale DIOC-E. DIOC-E offre la possibilité d’étudier différents aspects de la migration sud-sud et de réaliser des comparaisons fiables avec la migration sud-nord. En particulier, des données plus fiables provenant des pays d’origine permettent de calculer des taux d’expatriation par niveaux d’instruction en incluant les grands pays de destination hors de la zone OCDE. Cela remet en question des conclusions établies précédemment sur l’importance relative de la migration dans différentes régions du monde, affine les caractéristiques principales des émigrés et donne un éclairage sur des questions clés comme la dimension « genre » de la migration internationale et la sélectivité des mouvements migratoires. DIOC-E (version 2.0) contient des données pour 89 pays de destination, dont 61 sont en dehors de la zone OCDE. La base de données contient des informations par niveaux d’instruction, âge, sexe et résultats sur le marché du travail pour 110 millions de migrants âgés de 15 ans et plus, soit environ 72 % de l’estimation mondiale des migrants internationaux. Au total, 46.8 millions de migrants (43.6 %) sont faiblement qualifiés, 37.5 millions (35 %) ont un niveau d’éducation intermédiaire et 23 millions (21.5 %) sont hautement qualifiés. Bien que la migration faiblement qualifiée prédomine en termes absolus, tant vers les pays de l’OCDE que vers les pays non membres, les taux d’expatriation des migrants hautement qualifiés dépassent les taux d’expatriation globaux dans toutes les régions, reflétant ainsi la sélectivité de la migration. Les analyses économétriques des déterminants bilatéraux de la migration des personnes hautement qualifiées distinguent la migration sud-nord des migrations sud-sud. En ce qui concerne la migration vers les pays de l’OCDE, la relation entre le taux d’expatriation des personnes hautement qualifiées et le niveau de revenus des pays d’origine suit une courbe en U inversée. Cela n’est pas le cas pour la migration vers les pays non membres. Les taux d’expatriation globaux ainsi que ceux des personnes hautement qualifiées vers les pays non membres augmentent lorsque le niveau de revenu des pays d’origine diminue. Classification-JEL: F22; I23; J24; J61; O15 Keywords: base de données, DIOC, DIOC-E, développement, effectifs de migrants, immigrés, migration internationale, qualification, taux d’expatriation, éducation, émigrés Creation-Date: 2011-03-31 Number: 114 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:114-FR Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jean-Christophe Dumont Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Gilles Spielvogel Author-Workplace-Name: University of Paris I Author-Name: Sarah Widmaier Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: International Migrants in Developed, Emerging and Developing Countries: An Extended Profile Abstract: Increasing international mobility makes international comparable data even more important, to depict global migration patterns and its characteristics, not only in receiving countries but also in origin countries. This paper provides a detailed picture of immigrant and emigrant populations around the year 2000 based on the new global bilateral migration database DIOC-E. DIOC-E gives the opportunity to investigate various aspects of South-South migration and to make reliable comparisons with South-North migration. In particular, emigration rates for different skill levels can be computed, including many key destination countries outside the OECD area, based on more accurate education data in origin countries. This refines and challenges previous conclusions regarding the relative importance of migration in different regions of the world, main characteristics of emigrants, and sheds light on such key issues as the gender dimension of international migration and the selectivity of migration flows. DIOC-E (release 2.0) covers 89 destination countries, of which 61 are outside the OECD area. It includes information on 110 million migrants aged 15 and over by skill level, age, gender and labour market outcomes, which represents around 72% of the estimated number of international migrants worldwide. In total there are 46.8 million low-skilled migrants (43.6%), 37.5 million migrants with intermediate skill level (35%) and 23 million highly skilled migrants (21.5%). Although low-skilled migration still dominates in absolute terms both to the OECD and to non-OECD countries, emigration rates for highly skilled persons exceed total emigration rates in all regions, which reflect the selective nature of migration. The econometric analyses of bilateral determinants of migration of the high-skilled distinguish South-North and South-South migration. Regarding migration to OECD countries, the relationship between the emigration rate of the highly skilled and the income level of origin countries follows an inverted U-shape relationship. But this is not the case for migration to non-OECD countries. Both total and high-skilled emigration rates to non-OECD countries steadily increase as the level of income of the origin countries decreases.
La croissance de la mobilité internationale souligne l’importance de données internationales comparables pour décrire la migration mondiale et ses caractéristiques, non seulement dans les pays de destination mais aussi dans les pays d’origine. Ce document donne une image détaillée des populations émigrée et immigrée dans les années 2000 à partir de la nouvelle base de données bilatérale mondiale DIOC-E. DIOC-E offre la possibilité d’étudier différents aspects de la migration sud-sud et de réaliser des comparaisons fiables avec la migration sud-nord. En particulier, des données fiables dans les pays d’origine permettent de calculer des taux d’expatriation par niveaux d’éducation en incluant les grands pays de destination hors de la zone OCDE. Cela remet en question des conclusions établies précédemment sur l’importance relative de la migration dans différentes régions du monde, affine les caractéristiques principales des émigrés et donne un éclairage sur des questions clés comme la dimension « genre » de la migration internationale et la sélectivité des mouvements migratoires. DIOC-E (release 2.0) contient des données pour 89 pays de destination, dont 61 sont en dehors de la zone OCDE. La base de données contient des informations par niveaux d’éducation, âge, genre et des résultats sur le marché du travail pour 110 millions de migrants âgés de 15 ans et plus, soit environ 72% de l’estimation mondiale des migrants internationaux. Au total, 46.8 millions de migrants (43.6%) sont faiblement qualifiés, 37.5 millions (35%) ont un niveau d’éducation intermédiaire et 23 millions (21.5%) sont hautement qualifiés. Bien que la migration faiblement qualifiée prédomine en termes absolus, tant vers les pays de l’OCDE que vers les pays non-OCDE, les taux d’expatriation des migrants hautement qualifiés dépassent les taux d’expatriation globaux dans toutes les régions, reflétant ainsi la sélectivité de la migration. Les analyses économétriques des déterminants bilatéraux de la migration des personnes hautement qualifiées distinguent la migration sud-nord des migrations sud-sud. En ce qui concerne la migration vers les pays de l’OCDE, la relation entre le taux d’expatriation des personnes hautement qualifiées et le niveau de revenus des pays d’origine suit une courbe en U inversée. Cela n’est pas le cas pour la migration vers les pays non-OCDE. Les taux d’expatriation globaux ainsi que ceux des personnes hautement qualifiées vers les pays non-OCDE augmentent lorsque le niveau de revenu des pays d’origine diminue. Classification-JEL: F22; I23; J24; J61; O15 Keywords: base de données, database, development, DIOC, DIOC, DIOC-E, DIOC-E, développement, education, emigrants, emigration rates, immigrants, immigrés, international migration, migrant stocks, migration internationale, qualification, skills, stock de migrants, taux d’expatriation, éducation, émigrés Creation-Date: 2010-12-09 Number: 114 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:114-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Danielle Venn Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Role of Short-Time Work Schemes during the 2008-09 Recession Abstract: The present paper provides the most comprehensive assessment to date of the impact of short-time work (STW) schemes during the 2008-09 crisis. The analysis covers 19 OECD countries, 11 of which operated a short-time work scheme before the crisis, five countries introduced a new scheme during the crisis period and three countries never had a short-time work scheme. In order to identify the causal effects of short-time work, a difference-in-differences approach is adopted that exploits the variation in labour-adjustment patterns and the intensity with which STW schemes are used across countries and time. The estimates support the conclusion that STW schemes had an economically important impact on preserving jobs during the economic downturn, with the largest impacts of STW on employment in Germany and Japan among the 16 countries considered. However, the positive impact of STW was limited to workers with permanent contracts, thereby further increasing labour market segmentation between workers in regular jobs and workers in temporary and part-time jobs. The estimated jobs impact is smaller than the potential number of jobs saved as implied by the full-time equivalent number of participants in short-time work, suggesting that STW schemes end up supporting some jobs that would have been maintained in the absence of the subsidy. However, the estimated deadweight is less than that usually estimated for other job subsidy measures. As the OECD area is only just starting to emerge from the crisis, it is still too early to assess the impact of STW schemes in the longer term. Indeed, the main concerns about STW schemes relate to their potentially adverse impacts on the vigour of employment growth during the recovery and economic restructuring in the longer run.
Ce document fournit l'évaluation la plus complète à ce jour de l'impact des dispositifs de chômage partiel au cours de la crise de 2008-09. L'analyse couvre 19 pays de l'OCDE, dont 11 disposant d’un dispositif de chômage partiel avant la crise, cinq pays en ayant introduit un nouveau au cours de la période de crise et trois pays n'en ayant jamais eu. Afin d'identifier les effets de causalité du chômage partiel, une approche par différence en différences est adoptée, qui exploite la variation dans les modalités d’ajustement de l’emploi et l'intensité avec laquelle les dispositifs de chômage partiel sont utilisés à travers les pays et le temps. Les estimations viennent étayer la conclusion selon laquelle les systèmes d’indemnisation du chômage partiel ont un impact économique important dans la préservation de l’emploi en phase de ralentissement de l’économie, avec des dispositifs de chômage partiel ayant les plus forts impacts sur l’emploi parmi les 16 pays considérés en Allemagne et au Japon. Toutefois, l’incidence bénéfique du chômage partiel s’est limitée aux effectifs permanents, creusant ainsi encore davantage le fossé avec les travailleurs temporaires et à temps partiel L'impact estimé sur l’emploi est plus faible que le nombre potentiel d'emplois sauvés comme le sous-entend le nombre de participants au chômage partiel en équivalent plein temps, ce qui donne à penser que les dispositifs de chômage partiel soutiennent certains emplois qui auraient été maintenus même sans subvention. Toutefois, l’effet d’aubaine est inférieur à celui qui est généralement estimé pour d’autres types d’aides à l’emploi. La zone OCDE étant tout juste en train de sortir de la crise, il est trop tôt encore pour déterminer l’impact des dispositifs de chômage partiel à plus long terme. En effet, les principales préoccupations concernant les dispositifs de chômage partiel tiennent à leur impact potentiellement négatif sur la vigueur de la croissance de l'emploi pendant la reprise et les restructurations économiques à plus long terme. Classification-JEL: J23; J65; J68 Creation-Date: 2011-01-17 Number: 115 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:115-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Veerle Miranda Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Cooking, Caring and Volunteering: Unpaid Work Around the World Abstract: Household production constitutes an important aspect of economic activity and ignoring it may lead to incorrect inferences about levels and changes in well-being. This paper sheds light on the importance of unpaid work by making use of detailed time-use surveys for 25 OECD member countries and 3 emerging economies. The calculations suggest that between one-third and half of all valuable economic activity in the countries under consideration is not accounted for in the traditional measures of well-being, such as GDP per capita. In all countries, women do more of such work than men, although to some degree balanced – by an amount varying across countries – by the fact that they do less market work. While unpaid work – and especially the gender division of unpaid work – is to some extent related to a country’s development level, country cross-sectional data suggest that demographic factors and public policies tend to exercise a much larger impact. The regular collection of time-use data can thus be of tremendous value for government agencies to monitor and design public policies, and give a more balanced view of well-being across different societies.
La production des ménages constitue un aspect important de l’activité économique et sa non prise en compte risquerait d’aboutir à des conclusions erronées concernant les niveaux de bien-être et leurs variations. Ce document met en lumière l’importance du travail non rémunéré en utilisant des enquêtes détaillées sur l’utilisation du temps dans 25 pays membres de l’OCDE et 3 économies émergentes. Les calculs montrent qu’une part comprise entre le tiers et la moitié de la totalité de l’activité économique utile dans les pays examinés n’est pas prise en compte dans les indicateurs traditionnels du bien-être tels que le PIB par tête. Dans tous les pays, les femmes effectuent davantage de travaux de cette nature que les hommes, bien que ce fait soit compensé dans une certaine mesure – dans des proportions qui varient selon les pays – par le fait qu’elles offrent moins de services marchands. Bien que les travaux non rémunérés – et plus particulièrement la répartition de ces travaux entre les deux sexes – soient liés dans une certaine mesure au niveau de développement, des données transversales portant sur les différents pays montrent que les facteurs démographiques et les politiques publiques ont en général une incidence beaucoup plus importante. La collecte périodique de données concernant l’utilisation du temps peut donc présenter un intérêt considérable pour les organismes publics en leur permettant d’assurer le suivi et la conception des politiques publiques et en donnant une image plus équilibrée du bien-être dans les différentes sociétés. Classification-JEL: D13; D63; J13; J16; J22 Creation-Date: 2011-09-20 Number: 116 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:116-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ana Llena-Nozal Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Theodora Xenogiani Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: What Drives Inflows Into Disability?: Evidence from Three OECD Countries: Australia, Switzerland, United Kingdom Abstract: This paper investigates the dynamic effects of health shocks on labour market transitions to disability, employment and other non-employment pathways. It uses longitudinal data to estimate time discrete duration models for three countries: Australia, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Both current and lagged health status are important predictors of exit to disability benefits and the effect of health problems varies by age group, education and income across countries. The results are robust to the inclusion of different socio-demographic variables and to instrumenting health status.
Ce papier analyse les effets dynamiques des chocs de santé sur les transitions du marché du travail vers des prestations d’invalidité, l’emploi et d’autres voies de non-emploi. Il utilise des données longitudinales pour estimer des modèles de durée à temps discret pour trois pays: l’Australie, la Suisse et le Royaume Uni. L’état de santé courante et celui de la période précédente ont un impact important sur la probabilité des sorties vers les régimes d’invalidité, et l’effet des problèmes de santé varie avec l’âge, l’éducation et le revenu à travers les pays. Les résultats sont robustes à l’inclusion des variables sociodémographiques et à l’instrumentation de l’état de santé. Classification-JEL: H55; I10; J14 Creation-Date: 2011-03-28 Number: 117 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:117-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: María del Carmen Huerta Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Jennifer Baxter Author-Workplace-Name: Australian Institute of Family Studies Author-Name: Miles Corak Author-Workplace-Name: University of Ottawa Author-Name: Mette Deding Author-Workplace-Name: Danish National Institute of Social Research Author-Name: Matthew C. Gray Author-Workplace-Name: Australian National University Author-Name: Wen-Jui Han Author-Workplace-Name: Columbia University Author-Name: Jane Waldfogel Author-Workplace-Name: Columbia University Title: Early Maternal Employment and Child Development in Five OECD Countries Abstract: More mothers with young children are in paid work than in the past. There is a long-running debate on possible negative effects of maternal employment on child development. For the first time, this paper presents an initial comparative analysis of longitudinal data on maternal employment patterns after birth on child cognitive and behavioural development. The paper examines data of five OECD countries with different types and intensity of support provided to families to reconcile work and family life. The evidence suggests that a return to paid work by mothers within six months after childbirth may have negative effects on child outcomes, particularly on cognitive development, but the effects are small and not universally observed. Other factors such as family income, parental education and quality of interaction with children have greater influences on child development than early maternal employment per se.
Beaucoup plus de mères de jeunes enfants exercent aujourd’hui un emploi rémunéré qu’avant. Un débat ancien existe sur les effets potentiellement négatifs du travail maternel sur le développement de l'enfant. Pour la première fois, cet article présente une analyse comparative de données longitudinales concernant la relation de l'emploi maternel après la naissance sur le développement cognitif et comportemental de l'enfant. Le document examine les données de cinq pays de l'OCDE avec des soutiens aux familles pour concilier travail et vie de famille d’intensité et de types différents. Les résultats suggèrent qu'un retour au travail rémunéré par des mères dans les six mois après l'accouchement peut avoir des effets négatifs sur les résultats de l'enfant, notamment sur le développement cognitif, mais les effets sont petits et observés de façon non universelle. D'autres facteurs comme le revenu de la famille, l'éducation des parents et la qualité de l'interaction avec les enfants ont une plus grande influence sur le développement de l'enfant que le travail maternel en soi. Classification-JEL: D10; D60; J13; J16; J22 Keywords: behavior problems, birth cohort studies, childcare, cognitive development, maternal employment Creation-Date: 2011-09-06 Number: 118 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:118-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Labour Market Effects of Unemployment Compensation in Brazil Abstract: This paper analyses the impact of unemployment insurance and severance pay on the duration of nonemployment and transitions from non-employment to formal salaried employment, informal salaried employment and self-employment. It makes use of panel data from the Pesquisa Mensal de Emgrego, a monthly survey for six large cities in Brazil, for the period 2002M3 to 2010M10. The impact of income support to job losers is identified by means of a difference-in-differences approach that exploits eligibility conditions for income support in combination with proportional hazard models that take account of the spell-based nature of the data. A key aspect of the analysis is that it attempts to assess the role of moral hazard while controlling for the role of liquidity effects. The aggregate results indicate that income support has an important impact on the duration of non-employment. This largely appears to be driven by liquidity effects, while the role of moral hazard is limited. By contrast, the analysis by destination state suggests that moral hazard effects dominate liquidity effects associated with income support. The apparent inconsistency between the two sets of results is due to the fact that the aggregate analysis only accounts for moral hazard effects that increase the duration of nonemployment, while the analysis by destination state captures both moral hazard effects in the form of reduced work incentives per se and those in the form of increased incentives to work informally during the period of benefit receipt. In practice, the latter effect may reflect the tendency for firms to employ benefit recipients informally until their benefits expire.
Ce document analyse l’impact de l’assurance chômage et des indemnités de licenciement sur la durée du chômage et la transition vers un emploi salarié dans le secteur formel ou informel, ou vers un emploi indépendant. L’analyse repose sur des données de panel comprises entre M3 2003 et M10 2010 tirées de l’enquête mensuelle sur l’emploi Pesquisa Mensal de Emprego qui concerne six grande zone urbaines du Brésil. Le test de l’incidence du soutien de revenu pour les chômeurs s’appuie sur la méthode de la différence des différences, exploitant les conditions d’éligibilité aux indemnités de soutien de revenu en combinaison avec des modèles de risque proportionnels qui tiennent compte de la nature épisodique des données. Un point essentiel de l’analyse est de tenter d’évaluer le rôle de l’aléa moral tout en tenant compte du rôle des effets de liquidités. Les résultats au niveau agrégé indiquent que le soutien des revenus a un impact important sur la durée du chômage. Il semble que ce résultat soit largement dû aux effets de liquidités, le rôle de l’aléa moral étant limité. En revanche, l’analyse par type d’emploi retrouvé suggère que les effets d’aléa moral dominent les effets de liquidité associés à la garantie de revenu. Cette contradiction apparente entre les deux groupes de résultats s’explique par le fait que l’analyse au niveau agrégé ne prend en compte que les effets d’aléa moral qui augmentent la durée du chômage, alors que l’analyse par destination capture à la fois les effets d’aléa moral qui se manifestent sous la forme d’une incitation réduite à reprendre un emploi, mais aussi ceux associés à l’incitation plus forte à travailler dans le secteur informel pendant la période d’indemnisation. En pratique, ce dernier effet pourrait refléter une tendance des entreprises à employer de manière informelle les bénéficiaires de prestations jusqu’à ce que leurs droits à indemnisation cessent. Creation-Date: 2011-12-12 Number: 119 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:119-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Right for the Job: Over-Qualified or Under-Skilled? Abstract: Ensuring a good match between skills acquired in education and on the job and those required in the labour market is essential to make the most of investments in human capital and promote strong and inclusive growth. Unfortunately, in the OECD on average, about one in four workers are over-qualified – i.e. they possess higher qualifications than those required by their job – and just over one in five are under-qualified – i.e. they possess lower qualifications than those required by their job. In addition, some socio-demographic groups are more likely than others to be over-qualified – notably, immigrants and new labour market entrants who take some time to sort themselves into appropriate jobs – or under-qualified – notably, experienced workers lacking a formal qualification for the skills acquired on the labour market… Creation-Date: 2011-09-01 Number: 120 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:120-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Over-Qualified or Under-Skilled: A Review of Existing Literature Abstract: Mismatches between workers’ competences and what is required by their job are widespread in OECD countries. Studies that use qualifications as proxies for competences suggest that as many as one in four workers could be over-qualified and as many as one in three could be under-qualified for their job. However, there is significant variation across countries and socio-demographic groups. Our meta-analysis of country studies suggests that over 35% of workers are over-qualified in Sweden compared with just 10% in Finland, with most other OECD countries located between these two extremes. There is also extensive evidence that youth are more likely to be over-qualified than their older counterparts and the same is found to be true for immigrant workers compared with a country’s nationals. On the other hand, no definitive evidence has been found of the persistence of qualification mismatch, with some papers showing that over-qualification is just a temporary phenomenon that most workers overcome through career mobility and others finding infrequent transitions between over-qualification and good job matches. Across the board, over-qualified workers are found to earn less than their equally-qualified and well-matched counterparts but more than appropriately-qualified workers doing the same job. Under-qualified workers are found to earn more than their equally-qualified and well-matched counterparts but less than appropriately-qualified workers doing the same job. Over-qualified workers are also found to be less satisfied about their job and more likely to leave their work than well-matched workers with the same qualifications…. Creation-Date: 2011-09-01 Number: 121 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:121-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Linda Richardson Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Redistribution Policy and Inequality Reduction in OECD Countries: What Has Changed in Two Decades? Abstract: We use a range of data sources to assess if, and to what extent, government redistribution policies have slowed or accelerated the trend towards greater income disparities in the past 20-25 years. In most countries, inequality among “non-elderly” households has widened during most phases of the economic cycle and any episodes of narrowing income differentials have usually not lasted long enough to close the gap between high and low incomes that had opened up previously. With progressive redistribution systems in place, greater inequality automatically leads to more redistribution, even if no policy action is taken. We find that, in the context of rising market-income inequality, tax-benefit systems have indeed become more redistributive since the 1980s but that this did not stop income inequality from rising: market-income inequality grew by twice as much as redistribution. The redistributive strength of tax-benefit systems weakened in many countries particularly in the most recent decade. While growing market-income disparities were the main driver of inequality trends between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s, reduced redistribution was often the main driver in the ten years that followed. Benefits had a much stronger impact on inequality than social contributions or taxes, despite the much bigger aggregate size of direct taxes. As a result, redistribution policies were often less successful at counteracting growing income gaps at the bottom in the top half of the income distribution.
Nous utilisons une série de sources de données afin d'évaluer si, et dans quelle mesure, les politiques de redistribution du gouvernement ont ralenti ou accéléré la tendance vers une aggravation des disparités de revenus dans les 20-25 dernières années. Dans la majorité des pays, l'inégalité parmi les ménages de “non-personnes âgées” s’est élargie pendant la plupart des phases du cycle économique et des épisodes de rétrécissement d’écarts de revenus n'ont généralement pas duré assez longtemps pour réduire l'écart entre les revenus élevés et faibles qui se sont ouverts auparavant. Avec les systèmes de redistribution progressive en place, une plus grande inégalité conduit automatiquement à une plus grande redistribution, même si aucune décision politique n'est prise. Nous constatons que, dans le contexte de la hausse de l’inégalité du revenu du marché, les systèmes socio-fiscaux sont en effet devenus plus redistributifs depuis les années 80 mais cela n'a pas empêché les inégalités de revenu à augmenter : l'inégalité du revenu du marché a augmenté deux fois plus que la redistribution. La force de redistribution des systèmes socio-fiscaux s’est affaiblie dans de nombreux pays, en particulier dans la dernière décennie. Alors que l’augmentation des disparités du revenu du marché a été le principal moteur de l'évolution des inégalités entre les années 80 et 90, la réduction de redistribution était souvent le principal moteur dans les dix ans qui ont suivi. Les bénéfices ont eu un impact beaucoup plus fort sur les inégalités que les cotisations sociales ou les impôts, malgré l’importance plus grande de l’ensemble des impôts directs. En conséquence, les politiques de redistribution ont souvent connu moins de succès à contrecarrer les écarts de revenus croissants au fond dans la moitié supérieure de la répartition des revenus. Classification-JEL: C81; D31; H22; H55 Keywords: income inequality, OECD, redistribution, working age population Creation-Date: 2011-10-04 Number: 122 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:122-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Bassanini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Aggregate Earnings and Macroeconomic Shocks: The Role of Labour Market Policies and Institutions Abstract: I examine the effect of labour market policies and institutions on the transmission of macroeconomic shocks to the labour market, using both aggregate and industry-level annual data for 23 OECD countries, 23 business-sector industries and up to 29 years. I find that high and progressive labour taxes and generous unemployment benefits amplify labour income fluctuations. By contrast, statutory minimum wages reduce the difference in the sensitivity of wages to aggregate shocks between low-wage and high-wage industries. Dismissal regulations are found to mitigate the impact of shocks on both earnings and employment. Moreover, this mitigation effect is greater in industries where firms have a greater propensity to make staffing changes through dismissals. Stringent dismissal regulations also appear to reduce the counter-cyclicality of the earnings dispersion between high and low-educated labour. Creation-Date: 2011-09-01 Number: 123 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:123-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Pauline Fron Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Maxime Ladaique Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Is the European Welfare State Really More Expensive?: Indicators on Social Spending, 1980-2012; and a Manual to the OECD Social Expenditure Database (SOCX) Abstract: Part I of this paper first presents information on trends and composition of social expenditure as in the OECD Social Expenditure database for the years 1980 – 2007. Over this period, public social expenditure as a percentage of GDP, on average across OECD, increased from 15.6% to 19.2%. Public pension spending (6.4% of GDP) and public health expenditure (5.8% of GDP) are the largest social spending items. Part I also presents social expenditure indicators that account for the effects of the tax system as well as indicators on private social expenditure. Including both of these features alters country rankings by level of social spending and leads to a convergence of spending-to-GDP ratios across countries. Based on this broader measure net total social expenditure as a percent of GDP at factor costs in 2007 was highest in France and Belgium, at 30% of GDP, and between 22 and 28% of GDP in Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States. Part II of this paper presents the OECD SOCX Manual. It starts with a discussion of methodological, classification and data issues regarding the gross spending items as in SOCX. It also looks at the methodological aspects of measuring net social expenditure, and presents information on how relevant estimates were derived. Accounting for the effect of the tax system and private social expenditure leads to greater similarity in social expenditure-to-GDP ratios across countries and to a reassessment of the magnitude of welfare states. After accounting for the impact of taxation and private benefits, social expenditure amounts to over 30% of GDP at factor cost in Belgium and France; social expenditure also ranges within a few percentage points of each other in Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States.
La Partie I de ce document présente tout d'abord des informations sur les tendances et la composition des dépenses sociales issues de la base de données OCDE sur les dépenses sociales pour les années 1980 - 2007. Durant cette période, les dépenses sociales publiques en pourcentage du PIB ont augmenté en moyenne de 15,6% à 19,2% dans les pays de l'OCDE. Les dépenses de retraite publiques (6,4% du PIB) et les dépenses de santé publique (5,8% du PIB) sont les plus grandes catégories de dépenses sociales. La Partie I présente également des indicateurs de dépenses sociales tenant compte des effets du système fiscal et ainsi que des indicateurs sur les dépenses sociales privées. La prise en compte de ces deux effets modifie le classement des pays selon le niveau de dépenses sociales et conduit à une convergence des ratios entre les niveaux des dépenses sociales et le PIB entre les pays. Basées sur cette mesure plus large, les dépenses sociales totales nettes en pourcentage du PIB aux coûts des facteurs atteignent 30% du PIB en 2007 pour les plus élevées, en France et en Belgique, et varient entre 22 et 28% du PIB en Autriche, au Canada, au Danemark, en Finlande, en Italie, au Japon, aux Pays-Bas, au Portugal, au Royaume-Uni et aux États-Unis. La Partie II de ce document présente le manuel SOCX de l'OCDE, avec tout d’abord une discussion sur des questions méthodologiques, sur la classification des dépenses brutes telles que présentées dans SOCX. Les aspects méthodologiques de la mesure de dépenses sociales nettes sont ensuite présentés, notamment avec des informations sur la façon dont les estimations ont été dérivées. La prise en compte des prestations sociales privées et de l’impact de la fiscalité sur les dépenses sociales a pour effet d’égaliser les ratios entre les niveaux des dépenses sociales et le PIB. Après la prise en compte des prestations sociales privées et de l’impact de la fiscalité, les dépenses sociales atteignent plus de 30% du PIB aux coûts des facteurs en Belgique et en France ; enfin les écarts entre les dépenses sociales en Autriche, Canada, Danemark, Finlande, Italie, Japon, Pays-Bas, Portugal, Royaume-Uni et aux États-Unis ne sont que de quelques points de pourcentage. Classification-JEL: H2; H52 Keywords: economic crisis, private social benefits, public welfare system, social policy, tax breaks with a social purpose, taxation of benefit income Creation-Date: 2011-11-02 Number: 124 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:124-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Danielle Venn Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Earnings Volatility and its Consequences for Households Abstract: Many workers experience large fluctuations in before-tax labour earnings from one year to the next, due to changes in working hours, movements in and out of work and changes in pay. Youth entering the labour market and workers in non-standard jobs (such as temporary employment or self-employment) are the most likely to experience both large increases and large decreases in earnings. Other workers, such as those with a low level of education, poor health or approaching retirement, have only an increased chance of experiencing a large drop in earnings. It is often difficult for workers to predict changes in earnings and assess whether these are temporary or permanent. Additionally, private insurance and financial markets are poorly equipped to protect households against earnings fluctuations. Large drops in individual earnings are associated with an increased risk of household poverty and financial stress, with the impact largest in the poorest households. Tax and welfare systems can help buffer households against volatile earnings. Taxes play a prominent role in reducing the impact of earnings fluctuations among full-time workers, while transfers such as unemployment benefits and social assistance are more important when volatility is due to movements into or out of work.
De nombreux travailleurs connaissent d'importantes fluctuations de leurs gains liés au travail, avant impôts, d'une année à l'autre, en raison de variations de leur temps de travail, des flux d'entrée et de sortie de l'emploi et des variations de rémunération. Les jeunes qui entrent sur le marché du travail et les travailleurs qui occupent des emplois atypiques (emplois temporaires ou travail indépendant, par exemple) sont les plus susceptibles de connaître aussi bien de fortes augmentations que de fortes diminutions de leurs gains. Les autres travailleurs, par exemple ceux qui ont un faible niveau de formation, sont en mauvaise santé ou approchent de la retraite ont uniquement une probabilité accrue de subir une forte diminution de leurs gains. Il est souvent difficile pour les travailleurs d'anticiper l'évolution de leurs gains et de savoir si les changements auront un caractère temporaire ou permanent. En outre, l'assurance privée et les marchés financiers sont mal équipés pour protéger les ménages contre les fluctuations de leurs gains. Les baisses importantes des gains individuels sont associées à un risque accru de pauvreté et de difficultés financières pour les ménages, en particulier pour les ménages les plus pauvres. Les systèmes fiscaux et de prestations peuvent contribuer à protéger les ménages contre la volatilité des gains. La fiscalité joue un rôle déterminant pour ce qui est de réduire l'impact des fluctuations des gains des travailleurs à plein temps, tandis que les transferts – tels que les allocations chômage et l'aide sociale – jouent un rôle plus important lorsque la volatilité des gains est due aux mouvements d'entrée et de sortie de l'emploi. Creation-Date: 2011-10-07 Number: 125 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:125-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sarah Widmaier Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Jean-Christophe Dumont Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Are Recent Immigrants Different? A New Profile of Immigrants in the OECD based on DIOC 2005/06 Abstract: Increasing international migration and changing immigrant populations in OECD countries make international comparable data on migrant populations essential. These data should be updated regularly to capture a detailed picture of migrant populations. This document presents the first results of the update of the Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC) for the years 2005/06. It describes immigrant and emigrant populations by socio-demographic characteristics and labour market outcomes in the OECD, as well as updated “brain drain” figures. In 2005/06, 10.8% of the population in the OECD was foreign-born, representing 91 million persons. Latin American and African migrant populations increased by more than 30% between 2000 and 2005/06, slightly more than that of Asian migrants (27%). Labour market outcomes of immigrants vary by region and country of origin, but they improved significantly since 2000. In many OECD countries, low-educated foreign-born fare better on the labour market than their native-born counterparts, but high-educated migrants tend to have lower employment rates and higher unemployment rates than their native-born counterparts... Classification-JEL: F22; J21; J24; J61; O15 Keywords: database, DIOC, education, emigrants, emigration rates, immigrants, international migration, migrant stocks, skills Creation-Date: 2011-11-29 Number: 126 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:126-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Karolin Krause Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Thomas Liebig Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Labour Market Integration of Immigrants and their Children in Austria Abstract: With 17% of the working-age population in 2010 being foreign-born, Austria has one of the largest shares of working-age immigrants in the OECD. As in other European OECD countries, the migration landscape in Austria has been shaped by the recruitment of low-educated labour migrants prior to the first oil shock and subsequent family migration. Even more important were the fall of the Iron Curtain in the late 1980s and the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, which triggered large-scale migration movements to Austria. More than three quarters of all migrants of working-age currently residing in Austria have arrived since the former event, with most entering between 1988 and 1995. Classification-JEL: J13; J15; J21; J24; J61; J68; J7; J8 Creation-Date: 2011-11-10 Number: 127 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:127-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thomas Liebig Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Author-Name: Sebastian Kohls Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Author-Name: Karolin Krause Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Title: L'intégration des immigrés et de leurs enfants sur le marché du travail en Suisse Abstract: La Suisse est, parmi les pays de l’OCDE, l’un de ceux où il y a la plus forte proportion d’immigrés – 27 % des personnes en âge de travailler sont nées à l’étranger – et la question de l’immigration occupe une place importante, tant dans l’agenda politique que dans le débat public. Compte tenu des nombreux débats que la question suscite dans le pays, on pourrait être tenté de penser que les immigrés sont moins bien intégrés en Suisse que dans d’autres pays.Les faits montrent cependant que, dans l’ensemble, l’intégration fonctionne plutôt bien en Suisse. La situation sur le marché du travail de la population immigrée dans son ensemble est largement favorable au regard de ce qu’on observe dans d’autres pays. Pour les hommes comme pour les femmes, le taux d’emploi des immigrés est plus élevé que dans les autres pays de l’OCDE... Classification-JEL: J13; J15; J21; J24; J61; J7; J8 Creation-Date: 2012-02-02 Number: 128 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:128-FR Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thomas Liebig Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Sebastian Kohls Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Karolin Krause Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Labour Market Integration of Immigrants and Their Children in Switzerland Abstract: Switzerland is among the OECD countries with the largest immigrant populations – 27% of the working-age population are foreign-born – and the issue of immigration is high on both the policy agenda and in the public debate. Given the numerous debates around this issue in Switzerland, one could be tempted to think that immigrants are less well integrated than in other countries... Classification-JEL: J13; J15; J21; J24; J61; J7; J8 Creation-Date: 2012-02-02 Number: 128 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:128-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Peter Davidson Author-Workplace-Name: University of New South Wales Author-Name: Peter Whiteford Author-Workplace-Name: University of New South Wales Title: An Overview of Australia's System of Income and Employment Assistance for the Unemployed Abstract: This report provides an overview of Australia’s labour market policies, with a focus on income support benefits and employment assistance for people of working age. It traces historical developments partly since 1990 and since 1978 in the case of some data series...
Ce rapport donne une vue d’ensemble des politiques du marché du travail de l’Australie, l’étude portant plus particulièrement sur les prestations de garantie de revenu et l’aide à l’emploi pour les personnes d’âge actif. L’historique de ces politiques est retracé, pour partie, depuis 1990 et, pour certaines séries de données, depuis 1978. Classification-JEL: H53; H83; I38; J08 Creation-Date: 2012-11-28 Number: 129 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:129-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gerlinde Verbist Author-Workplace-Name: University of Antwerp Author-Name: Michael Förster Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Maria Vaalavuo Author-Workplace-Name: European University Institute Title: The Impact of Publicly Provided Services on the Distribution of Resources: Review of New Results and Methods Abstract: This paper looks at how the income distribution in countries changes when the value of publicly-provided services to households is included. We consider five major categories of public services: education, health care, social housing, childcare and elderly care. On average across OECD countries, spending on these “in-kind” benefits accounts for about 13% of GDP, slightly more than the spending on cash transfers – but with considerable cross-country variation. Broadening the income concept to account for in-kind benefits considerably increases households’ economic resources: in a typical OECD country, the average annual household income would be close to USD 28 000, rather than USD 22 000 in purchasing power parities. But public services also contribute to reducing income inequality, by between one-fifth and one-third depending on the inequality measure. Mexico and, according to most inequality measures, the United States, Portugal, Ireland, and the United Kingdom record higher reduction rates, while Slovenia records lower ones. Across all countries, redistributive effects are stronger among specific population groups at higher risk of poverty. Between 2000 and 2007, the redistributive impact of public services remained stable overall. However, the impact became stronger in countries where the share of services in household income increased significantly, while it weakened in those countries where this share decreased. The paper suggests that publicly provided services fulfil an important direct redistributive role in OECD countries.
Ce document examine la façon dont la distribution des revenus varie dans les pays lorsque la valeur des services publics fournis aux ménages est inclue. L'imputation de la valeur de ces services dans les revenus des ménages et l'analyse de leur potentiel redistributif posent des défis méthodologiques importants, tels que l’estimation et l’allocation de ces services aux bénéficiaires, ou l'ajustement de l'échelle d'équivalence aux besoins associés à ces services. Nous présentons des analyses de sensibilité, en utilisant deux approches innovatrices mises en avant dans la littérature. Le document considère cinq grandes catégories de services publics : éducation, santé, logement social, garde d'enfants et soins aux personnes âgées. En moyenne, dans les pays de l'OCDE, les dépenses relatives à ces prestations «en nature» s’élèvent à environ 13% du PIB, soit légèrement plus que les dépenses relatives aux transferts en espèces - mais avec beaucoup de variations entre pays. Elargir le concept de revenu pour tenir compte des avantages «en nature» augmente considérablement les ressources économiques des ménages : dans un pays typique de l'OCDE, le revenu annuel moyen des ménages serait proche de 28 000 USD, plutôt que 22 000 USD en parité de pouvoir d’achat. Mais les services publics contribuent également à réduire l'inégalité de revenus, d’un cinquième à un tiers en fonction de la mesure d’inégalité. Le Mexique et, selon la plupart des mesures d’inégalités, les États-Unis, le Portugal, l'Irlande et le Royaume-Uni enregistrent des taux de réduction plus élevés, tandis que la Slovénie enregistre des taux de réduction plus faibles. Dans tous les pays, les effets redistributifs sont plus forts parmi les groupes de population spécifiques à risque de pauvreté plus élevé. Entre 2000 et 2007, l'impact redistributif des services publics est resté globalement stable. Toutefois, l'impact est devenu plus fort dans les pays où la part des services dans les revenus des ménages a augmenté de manière significative, alors qu'il s’est affaibli dans les pays où cette part a diminué. Le document suggère que les services publics remplissent un rôle de redistribution directe important dans les pays de l'OCDE. Creation-Date: 2012-01-10 Number: 130 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:130-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Danielle Venn Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Eligibility Criteria for Unemployment Benefits: Quantitative Indicators for OECD and EU Countries Abstract: Eligibility criteria for unemployment benefits, which require recipients to actively look for work, take up suitable job offers or take part in active labour market programmes (ALMPs), or risk benefit sanctions, can play an important role in offsetting the negative impact of generous unemployment benefits on employment incentives. This paper presents information on the strictness of eligibility criteria for unemployment benefits for 36 OECD and/or EU member countries. It covers entitlement conditions (employment and/or contribution requirements to gain access to benefits and sanctions for voluntary unemployment), job-search requirements (availability requirements during ALMPs and suitable work criteria), monitoring of job-search effort and sanctions for refusing a job offer or ALMP placement. These qualitative data are then used to compile a composite indicator of the strictness of eligibility criteria and some comparisons are made with the results of a similar exercise for earlier periods. This indicator complements existing cross-country indicators relating to unemployment benefits, such as net replacement rate data from the OECD Tax and Benefits database and data on ALMP expenditure compiled annually by Eurostat and the OECD.
Les critères d’éligibilité aux allocations de chômage, comme l’obligation de chercher activement un emploi, d’accepter les offres d’emploi convenables ou de participer à des programmes actifs du marché du travail (PAMT), ou bien le risque de sanction par rapport aux prestations, peuvent jouer un rôle important pour compenser l’effet négatif des allocations de chômage généreuses sur les incitations à l’emploi. Ce document présente des informations sur la rigueur des conditions d’éligibilité pour les allocations de chômage dans 36 pays de l’OCDE et/ou membres de l’UE. Il décrit les conditions d’accès aux prestations (période d’emploi et/ou de contribution requise et sanctions en cas de chômage volontaire), les obligations de recherche d’emploi (disponibilité pour les participants aux PAMT et critère d’emploi convenable), le contrôle des efforts de recherche d’emploi et les sanctions en cas de refus d’une offre d’emploi ou d’une proposition de participation à une mesure active du marché du travail. Ces données qualitatives sont ensuite utilisées pour construire un indicateur composite de la rigueur des critères d’éligibilité et effectuer des comparaisons avec des résultats d’exercices similaires pour des périodes antérieures. Cet indicateur complète les autres indicateurs disponibles relatifs aux prestations de chômage, tel les taux de remplacement issus de la base de données de l’OCDE prestations et salaires et les données sur les dépenses publiques des PAMT compilées annuellement par Eurostat et l’OCDE. Creation-Date: 2012-01-09 Number: 131 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:131-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Irina Denisova Title: Income Distribution and Poverty in Russia Abstract: The paper is a survey of literature and statistical sources on poverty and inequality in Russia in the 1990s and the 2000s. It serves as a background to OECD (2011), the OECD Labour Market and Social Policy Review of the Russian Federation that was released in 2011. We start with an overview of poverty and income inequality estimates available. Poverty and inequality trends are then complemented with poverty incidence analysis based on a nationally representative household survey. Long-term poverty patterns are examined using a panel dataset with survival analysis methods. Poverty prevention and reduction policies are discussed in the conclusion.
Ce document fait le tour des sources statistiques et bibliographiques sur la pauvreté et les inégalités dans la Fédération de Russie dans les années 90 et 2000. Il a servi à l’élaboration de l’Etude publiée en 2011 par l’OCDE intitulée « OECD Reviews of Labour Market and Social Policy : Russian Federation ». Ce document débute par un examen des données disponibles sur la pauvreté et les inégalités de revenus. Les tendances en matière de pauvreté et d’inégalité sont ensuites complétées par des analyses qui s’appuient sur des enquêtes nationales représentatives des ménages. Les motifs de la pauvreté à long terme sont étudiés en utilisant un échantillon de données avec des méthodes d’analyse de survie. Les politiques de prévention et de réduction de la pauvreté sont présentées en conclusion. Classification-JEL: I32 Keywords: entry to and exit from poverty, entrée et sortie de la pauvreté, incidence de la pauvreté, inequality, inégalité, pauvreté, poverty, poverty incidence, RLMS-HSE, RLMS-HSE Creation-Date: 2012-03-27 Number: 132 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:132-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Bassanini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Thomas Manfredi Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Capital's Grabbing Hand? A Cross-Country/Cross-Industry Analysis of the Decline of the Labour Share Abstract: We examine the determinants of the within-industry decline of the labour share, using industry-level annual data for 25 OECD countries, 20 business-sector industries and covering up to 28 years. We find that total factor productivity growth – which captures (albeit imprecisely) capital-augmenting or labour-replacing technical change – and capital deepening jointly account for as much as 80% of the within-industry contraction of the labour share. We also find that other important factors are privatisation of state-owned enterprises and the increase in international competition as well as off-shoring of intermediate stages of the production process. By contrast, we are unable to detect any effect from increases in domestic competition brought about by entry deregulation.
Nous examinons les déterminants du recul intrasectoriel de la part du travail, en utilisant des données sectorielles pour 25 pays de l’OCDE et 20 secteurs marchands sur une période couvrant jusqu’à 28 années. Nous trouvons que la croissance de la productivité totale des facteurs – qui peut représenter le progrès technique qui augmente la productivité du capital ou remplace le facteur travail – et l’accroissement de l’intensité capitalistique ont représenté ensemble à peu près 80 % de la diminution intrasectorielle moyenne de la part du travail dans les pays de l’OCDE. Nous trouvons aussi que d’autres facteurs importants sont la privatisation des entreprises publiques dans le secteur marchand ainsi que l’accroissement de la concurrence internationale et des délocalisations à l’étranger de la production de biens intermédiaires. Par contre, nous ne pouvons pas détecter un quelconque effet de l’accroissement de la concurrence intérieure résultant de la déréglementation de l’entrée sur les marchés des produits. Classification-JEL: I30 Creation-Date: 2012-07-04 Number: 133 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:133-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Peter Gal Author-Workplace-Name: VU University Amsterdam Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Zoltan Wolf Author-Workplace-Name: United States Census Bureau Title: The Role of Institutions and Firm Heterogeneity for Labour Market Adjustment: Cross-Country Firm-Level Evidence Abstract: This paper investigates the role of policies and institutions for aggregate labour market dynamics during the global financial crisis using firm-level data. The use of firm-level data is important if firms are heterogeneous in their labour input adjustment technologies. In this case, cross-country differences in aggregate labour market dynamics may not just stem from cross-country differences in average labour input technologies - here assumed to be largely due to differences in institutional settings -, but also from differences in the distribution of shocks across firms within countries and the composition of firms across countries. The contribution of this paper is threefold. First, the paper provides comparable estimates of the labour input adjustment behaviour of firms in response to output shocks across countries, industries and firm-size groups. Second, it makes use of decomposition methods to get a first indication of the importance of cross-country differences in adjustment technologies, the distribution of shocks across firms and the composition of firms across countries. We find that differences in the adjustment behaviour of firms account for about 40% of the cross-country variation in aggregate employment growth during the global financial crisis. We interpret this as prima facie evidence that differences in institutional settings accounted for a substantial part of the variation in aggregate employment growth during the crisis. Third, we find that employment-protection provisions with respect to regular workers reduce the output elasticity of employment, but increase the output elasticity of earnings per worker. Thus, employment protection tends to shift the burden of adjustment from the extensive to the intensive margin. However, the quantitative impact of employment protection for explaining the variation in aggregate labour dynamics during the global financial crisis is relatively small.
Cet article étudie le rôle des politiques et des institutions sur la dynamique générale du marché du travail au cours de la crise financière mondiale au moyen de données au niveau des entreprises. Le recours aux données au niveau des entreprises devient nécessaire si les entreprises sont hétérogènes en termes de techniques d’ajustement du facteur travail. Dans ce cas, les différences entre pays en matière de dynamique générale du marché du travail peuvent non seulement provenir de différences des techniques de l’ajustement moyen du facteur travail entre pays - supposées ici être dues en grande partie à des différences d’environnement institutionnel -, mais également d’écarts au niveau de la répartition des chocs entre les entreprises au sein des pays et de la composition des entreprises entre pays. La contribution de cet article est triple. Tout d'abord, cet article fournit des estimations comparables du comportement d'ajustement du facteur travail des entreprises en réponse à des chocs de production entre pays, branches d’activité et taille d'entreprise. Deuxièmement, il fait appel à des méthodes de décomposition pour obtenir une première indication de l'importance des différences entre pays en matière d’ajustement, de répartition des chocs entre les entreprises et de composition des entreprises entre pays. Nous constatons que les différences dans le comportement d'ajustement des entreprises représentent environ 40% de la variation entre pays de la croissance globale de l'emploi pendant la crise financière mondiale. Nous interprétons cela comme une preuve prima facie que les différences d’environnement institutionnel représentent une part substantielle de la variation de la croissance globale de l'emploi pendant la crise. Troisièmement, nous constatons que les dispositions en matière de protection de l’emploi des travailleurs réguliers réduisent l’élasticité de l’emploi à la production, mais augmentent l'élasticité des gains par travailleurs à la production. La protection d’emploi incite les entreprises à ajuster moins à la marge extensive mais davantage à la marge intensive. Pourtant l'impact quantitatif de la protection de l'emploi est limité pour expliquer la variation globale de la dynamique du travail au cours de la crise financière mondiale. Classification-JEL: E24; J23 Keywords: employment protection, global financial crisis Creation-Date: 2012-10-25 Number: 134 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:134-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Michael Förster Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Gerlinde Verbist Author-Workplace-Name: University of Antwerp Title: Money or Kindergarten? Distributive Effects of Cash Versus In-Kind Family Transfers for Young Children Abstract: Public support to families with pre-school children can be in the form of cash benefits (e.g. child allowances) or of “in-kind” support (e.g. care services such as kindergartens). The mix of these support measures varies greatly across OECD countries, from a cash / in-kind composition of 10%/90% to 80%/20%. This paper imputes the value of services into an “extended” household income and compares the resulting distributive patterns and the redistributive effect of these two strands of family policies. On average, cash and in-kind transfers each constitute 7 – 8% of the incomes of families with young children. Both instruments are redistributive. Cash transfers reduce child poverty by one third, with the estimated impacts in Austria, Ireland, Sweden, Hungary and Finland performing above average. When services are accounted for, child poverty falls by one quarter and poverty among children enrolled in childcare is more than halved. This reduction is highest in Belgium, France, Hungary, Iceland and Sweden.
L’aide publique aux familles ayant des enfants en âge préscolaire peut prendre la forme de prestations monétaires (allocations familiales, par exemple) ou en «nature» (par exemple les services de garde tels que les jardins d'enfants). La combinaison de ces mesures de soutien varie considérablement selon les pays de l'OCDE, d’une composition monétaire / ou en « nature » allant de 10%/90% à 80%/20%. Ce document attribue la valeur des services à un revenu « élargi » des ménages et compare les facteurs distributifs résultant et l’effet redistributif de ces deux volets de la politique familiale. En moyenne, les transferts monétaires et en nature constituent chacun 7- 8% des revenus des familles ayant des enfants en bas âge. Les deux instruments sont redistributifs. Les transferts monétaires réduisent la pauvreté infantile d'un tiers, et les effets estimés sont en-dessus de la moyenne en Autriche, Irlande, Suède, Hongrie et en Finlande. Lorsque les services sont pris en compte, la pauvreté infantile chute d'un quart et la pauvreté chez les enfants inscrits dans les services de garde est divisée par deux. Cette réduction est la plus élevée en Belgique, en France, en Hongrie, en Islande et en Suède. Classification-JEL: D31; H40; I38; J13 Keywords: cash and in-kind transfers, child poverty, family policy, income distribution Creation-Date: 2012-09-11 Number: 135 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:135-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sebastian Königs Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Dynamics of Social Assistance Benefit Receipt in Germany: State Dependence Before and After the Hartz Reforms Abstract: In this paper, we study the dynamics of social assistance benefit receipt in Germany using annual survey data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) for the years 1995-2011. Rates of benefit receipt were stable in Germany at around 8% in the 1990s but started rising in 2001 to peak at over 12% in 2006. We show that this increase in the receipt rate can be attributed to lower exit rates from benefit receipt since 2001. In the econometric part of the paper, we study state dependence in social assistance benefit receipt, i.e. the question to what extent benefit receipt today predicts the probability of future benefit receipt. We estimate a series of dynamic random-effects probit models that control for unobserved heterogeneity and endogeneity of the initial conditions and indeed find considerable evidence of state dependence. Our estimates suggest that benefit receipt one year ago raises the likelihood of benefit receipt today by a factor of 3, which corresponds to an average partial effect of about 14 percentage points. The level of state dependence differs between subsamples and is larger in absolute terms for women, Eastern German residents, and migrants, for whom receipt rates are higher. Studying variations over time, we find a rise in the level of state dependence after the 2005 Hartz reforms in Eastern Germany. We attribute this effect to a drop in average predicted entry rates into benefit receipt without a corresponding fall in predicted benefit persistence rates. We do not identify any comparable change in structural dependence for Germany as a whole or other subsamples we look at. Since a reform that contributes to keeping individuals off benefits while doing little to raise exit rates would increase state dependence but might nonetheless be considered as beneficial, our findings should not be understood as a verdict on the success or failure of the Hartz reforms.
Cet article étudie la dynamique des prestations d’assistance sociale reçues en Allemagne, sur la période 1995-2011, à partir des données annuelles du Panel socio-économique allemand (SOEP). Dans les années 90, le taux des prestations d’assistance sociale en Allemagne est resté stable autour de 8 % puis a commencé à augmenter à partir de 2001 pour dépasser 12% en 2006. Cette augmentation s’explique principalement par des taux de sortie plus faible du système de prestations à partir de 2001. La partie de l’article consacrée à l’analyse économétrique étudie la probabilité qu’une personne bénéficie dans l’avenir de prestations en fonction de recevoir des prestations aujourd’hui. Une série de modèles probit dynamique à effets aléatoires est utilisée en contrôlant l'hétérogénéité non observée et l'endogénéité des conditions initiales. Les résultats étayent l’hypothèse d’une dépendance entre les états . Les estimations suggèrent que le fait d’avoir reçu une prestation sociale un an auparavant augmente par un facteur de 3 la probabilité de bénéficier d’une prestation un an après, ce qui correspond en moyenne à un effet partiel de 14 points de pourcentage. Le niveau de dépendance varie selon les différents sous-échantillons : en termes absolus, la dépendance est plus importante chez les femmes, les résidents de l’Allemagne de l’Est et les immigrants, pour lesquels le taux de réception des prestations est plus élevé. L’analyse temporelle des variations de la dépendance entre les états montre une augmentation de celle-ci en Allemagne de l’Est après les réformes Hartz de 2005. Ce phénomène peut être attribué à une diminution du taux d’entrée prédit par le modèle, sans qu’elle s’accompagne d’une diminution des taux attendus de persistance des prestations. On ne trouve aucun changement comparable de la structure de la dépendance pour l’ensemble de l’Allemagne ou d’autres sous-échantillons. En principe, toute réforme qui rend moins probable la réception de prestations sociales tout en ne favorisant pas la sortie du système fait augmenter le taux de dépendance mais pourrait cependant être considérée comme bénéfique. Dans ce sens, nos résultats ne sont pas à interpréter comme un jugement positif ou négatif sur les réformes Hartz. Creation-Date: 2013-10-10 Number: 136 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:136-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lutz Bellmann Author-Workplace-Name: Institute for Employment Research Author-Name: Hans-Dieter Gerner Author-Workplace-Name: Institute for Employment Research Author-Name: Richard Upward Author-Workplace-Name: University of Nottingham Title: The Response of German Establishments to the 2008-2009 Economic Crisis Abstract: We examine the response of a large panel of German establishments to the crisis in terms of their job flows (changes in employment) and consequent worker flows (hires, separations and layoffs). We analyse the extent to which job flows and worker flows at the establishment level are systematically related to institutional arrangements intended to promote flexibility such as Kurzarbeit (short-time work, STW) and Arbeitszeitkonten (working-time accounts, WTA). We find pronounced evidence of labour hoarding in the sense that labour productivity fell rapidly during the 2008-09 downturn, but we find no evidence that STW (or other policies) increased labour hoarding by reducing layoffs. This may well reflect the probable selection effects involved which are not accounted for by observable differences between STW and non- STW establishments.
Nous examinons la réponse d'un large panel d'établissements allemands à la crise en termes de flux d'emplois (évolution de l'emploi) et de travailleurs qui en découlent (embauches, départs et licenciements). Nous analysons dans quelle mesure les flux d'emplois et les flux de travailleurs au niveau des établissements sont systématiquement liées aux arrangements institutionnels destinés à promouvoir la flexibilité comme le Kurzarbeit (chômage partiel, STW) et l’Arbeitszeitkonten (comptes épargne temps, WTA). Nous constatons un effet marqué de la rétention de main-d’oeuvre dans le sens où la productivité du travail a diminué rapidement pendant la récession de 2008-09, mais nous ne trouvons aucune indication que le chômage partiel (ou d'autres politiques) a augmenté la rétention de main-d’oeuvre en réduisant les licenciements. Cela pourrait bien reflèter les effets de sélection probables induits qui ne sont pas pris en compte par les différences observables entre les établissements ayants recours ou non au chômage partiel. Classification-JEL: J23; J63; J68 Keywords: global financial crisis, short-time work Creation-Date: 2012-12-11 Number: 137 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:137-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Nabil Ali Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Angelica Salvi del Pero Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Effects of Reducing Gender Gaps in Education and Labour Force Participation on Economic Growth in the OECD Abstract: This paper assesses the extent to which the increase in women’s human capital, as measured by educational attainment, has contributed to economic growth in OECD countries over the past five decades. Using cross-country/time series data covering 30 countries from 1960 to 2008 on education (the Barro-Lee dataset) and growth (update of OECD data), our results point out a positive and significant impact of the increase in women’s educational attainment relative to men on output per capita growth – as measured by GDP per capita. This increase in female educational attainment implies that the comparative advantage of men relative to women regarding educational attainment has weakened over time, and has even reversed in many countries. We find that the increase in the years of education of the total population has a positive influence on output per capita growth (around 10% of GDP per capita increase per additional year of education on average), and that a more equal ratio of education by gender boosts economic growth. Our results are robust to the use of estimation procedures that do not impose homogeneity restrictions on the speed of adjustment and short-run parameters, to control for endogenetiy due to possible reverse causality and to several other robustness tests. Last, but not least, we look at the potential effect of increased female labour force participation on economic growth. The size of the effect is dependent on the rate at which male and female labour force participation will converge, with a potential gain of 12% to the size of the total economy by 2030, on average across OECD countries, if complete convergence occurs in the next 20 years. Classification-JEL: J16; J21; J24; O4 Keywords: economic growth, gender, human capital, labour force participation Creation-Date: 2012-12-10 Number: 138 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:138-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Tor Eriksson Author-Workplace-Name: Aarhus University Title: Flexicurity and the Economic Crisis 2008-2009: Evidence from Denmark Abstract: A key feature of the Danish labour market is its so-called flexicurity, the coexistence of flexibility (low adjustment costs for both employers and employees) and security (owing to a developed social safety net with high coverage and high replacement ratios). This is often believed to have contributed to the resilience of the Danish labour market and especially to its ability to maintain a low and stable unemployment rate. The aim of this paper is to examine the performance of the flexicurity system and changes therein during the previous three decades, including the first years of the Great Recession. We carry out two types of analyses: at the levels of establishments and employees, respectively. First, we use linked employer-employee data for the private sector to examine how labour demand responds to output shocks by a study of firms’ labour adjustment behaviour during economic upturns and downturns. Second, based on the same data set we examine how the flexicurity system protects workers from income losses associated with job losses due to plant closures or major lay-offs. In particular, we are interested in how the transformation of the flexicurity system since the mid-nineties to increasingly emphasise activation and to reduce maximum unemployment benefit durations has changed employees’ security in case of displacement. We document large worker flows that exhibit strong cyclical variation giving rise to volatile unemployment dynamics. External flexibility of firms has remained unchanged for almost three decades. While we find no clear traces of trend changes in employers’ labour adjustment behaviour, we do find that income losses of displaced workers have declined over time, mainly due to their faster re-employment. Although it is still early days to conclude with certainty, there are so far no strong indications of the reemergence of unemployment hysteresis to the same extent as in previous recessions.
Une des principales caractéristiques du marché du travail danois est définie par ce qu’on appelle la flexicurité, coexistence de flexibilité (faibles coûts d'ajustement pour les employeurs et les employés) et de sécurité (en raison d'un filet de sécurité sociale mis au point avec une couverture élevée et des taux de remplacement élevés). On estime souvent que cela a contribué à la bonne tenue du marché du travail danois et spécialement à sa capacité à maintenir un taux de chômage faible et stable. L’objectif de cet article est d'examiner la performance du système de flexicurité et ses évolutions survenues au cours des trois dernières décennies, y compris les premières années de la Grande Récession. Nous réalisons deux types d'analyses: au niveau des établissements et des salariés, respectivement. Tout d'abord, nous utilisons des données appariées employeurs-salariés pour le secteur privé afin d'examiner la façon dont la demande de travail réagit aux chocs de production en étudiant le comportement des entreprises en termes d’ajustement du facteur travail en période de reprise et de ralentissement économique. En second lieu, sur la base des mêmes données, nous examinons comment le système de flexicurité protège les travailleurs contre des pertes de revenus liées a des pertes d'emplois consécutifs à des fermetures d'entreprises ou des licenciements massifs. En particulier, nous nous intéressons à la façon dont la transformation du système de flexicurité depuis le milieu des années 90, en mettant plus fortement l'accent sur l'activation et en réduisant la durée maximale de versement des prestations de chômage a modifié la sécurité des salariés en cas de suppressions d’emploi. Nous documentons les larges flux de travailleurs présentants de fortes variations au cycle et qui sont à l’origine d’une dynamique volatile du chômage. La flexibilité « externe » des entreprises est restée inchangée depuis près de trois décennies. Bien que nous ne trouvons aucun indice manifeste de changements de tendance dans le comportement des employeurs en termes d’ajustement de la main-d’oeuvre, nous constatons néanmoins que les pertes de revenu des travailleurs victimes de suppressions d’emplois ont diminué au fil du temps, principalement en raison de leur rapide retour à l'emploi. Bien qu'il soit encore trop tôt pour conclure avec certitude, il n’existe à ce jour aucune indication claire de la réémergence de l'hystérésis du chômage de même ampleur que lors des récessions précédentes. DELSA/ELSA Classification-JEL: J2; J3; J63 Keywords: earnings losses, flexicurity, hires and separations Creation-Date: 2012-12-13 Number: 139 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:139-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: María del Carmen Huerta Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Jennifer Baxter Author-Workplace-Name: Australian Institute of Family Studies Author-Name: Wen-Jui Han Author-Workplace-Name: New York University Author-Name: Mette Lausten Author-Workplace-Name: Danish National Institute of Social Research Author-Name: RaeHyuck Lee Author-Workplace-Name: Columbia University Author-Name: Jane Waldfogel Author-Workplace-Name: Columbia University Title: Fathers' Leave, Fathers' Involvement and Child Development: Are They Related? Evidence from Four OECD Countries Abstract: Previous research has shown that fathers taking some time off work around childbirth, especially periods of leave of 2 or more weeks, are more likely to be involved in childcare related activities than fathers who do not do so. Furthermore, evidence suggests that children with fathers who are ‘more involved’ perform better during the early years than their peers with less involved fathers. This paper analyses data of four OECD countries — Australia; Denmark; United Kingdom; United States — to describe how leave policies may influence father’s behaviours when children are young and whether their involvement translates into positive child cognitive and behavioural outcomes. This analysis shows that fathers’ leave, father’s involvement and child development are related. Fathers who take leave, especially those taking two weeks or more, are more likely to carry out childcare related activities when children are young. This study finds some evidence that children with highly involved fathers tend to perform better in terms of cognitive test scores. Evidence on the association between fathers’ involvement and behavioural outcomes was however weak. When data on different types of childcare activities was available, results suggest that the kind of involvement matters. These results suggest that what matters is the quality and not the quantity of father-child interactions. Classification-JEL: D10; D60; J13; J16; J22 Keywords: Australia, behavioural problems, birth cohort studies, cognitive development, Denmark, fathers’ involvement, parental leave, paternity leave, United Kingdom, United States Creation-Date: 2013-01-14 Number: 140 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:140-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Anne Solaz Title: Labour Market Effects of Parental Leave Policies in OECD Countries Abstract: This paper considers how entitlements to paid leave after the birth of children affect female labour market outcomes across countries. Such entitlements are granted for various lengths of time and paid at different rates, reflecting the influence of different objectives including: enhancing children’s wellbeing, promoting labour supply, furthering gender equality in labour market outcomes, as well as budget constraints. Although parental care is beneficial for children, there are concerns about the consequences of prolonged periods of leave for labour market outcomes and gender equality. This paper therefore looks at the long-run consequences of extended paid leave on female, male, and gender differences in prime-age (25-54) employment rates, average working hours, and earnings in 30 OECD countries from 1970 to 2010. It finds that extensions of paid leave lengths have a positive, albeit small, influence on female employment rates and on the gender ratio of employment, as long as the total period of paid leave is no longer than approximately two years. Additional weeks of leave, however, exert a negative effect on female employment and the gender employment gap. This paper also finds that weeks of paid leave positively affect the average number of hours worked by women relative to men, though on condition – once again – that the total duration of leave does not exceed certain limits. By contrast, the provision of paid leave widens the earnings gender gap among full-time employees. Classification-JEL: E24; J16; J38 Creation-Date: 2013-01-10 Number: 141 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:141-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Danielle Venn Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Helping Displaced Workers Back Into Jobs After a Natural Disaster: Recent Experiences in OECD Countries Abstract: Large-scale natural disasters can have long-lasting effects on the labour market in affected areas in addition to their humanitarian and economic cost. Mass evacuations and disruptions to housing, transport, social services and infrastructure can impede labour market participation. Firms may need to lay off workers, permanently or temporarily, as they deal with physical damage and loss of customers. Even if employment levels return to their pre-disaster levels, the mix of jobs and workers may have changed, so that skills shortages coexist with relatively high unemployment rates. Governments have an important role to play in helping prevent unnecessary job losses, providing income support and re-employment assistance to displaced workers while they find new jobs and creating the environment to encourage job creation as the recovery takes hold. This paper examines the labour market impact of recent natural disasters in six OECD countries, outlines labour market and income support policies implemented to help those affected and discusses the challenges of implementing such policies in the aftermath of a natural disaster.
Les catastrophes naturelles de grande ampleur peuvent avoir des effets durables sur le marché du travail dans les régions touchées, qui s’ajoutent à leur coût économique et humanitaire. Les évacuations de masse et la désorganisation du logement, des transports, des services sociaux et de l’infrastructure peuvent entraver l’activité sur le marché du travail. Les entreprises peuvent avoir à licencier des travailleurs, définitivement ou temporairement, pour cause de dégâts matériels et de perte de clientèle. Même si l’emploi retrouve ses niveaux d’avant la catastrophe, la composition de l’offre d’emplois et de maind’oeuvre peut avoir changé, ce qui peut se traduire simultanément par des pénuries de qualifications et des niveaux de chômage relativement élevés. Les autorités gouvernementales ont un rôle important à jouer pour aider à empêcher des pertes d’emplois inutiles, assurer aux travailleurs déplacés une garantie de revenu et une aide au retour à l’emploi, tout en trouvant de nouveaux emplois et en créant des conditions propices à la création d’emplois au fur et à mesure que la reprise se confirme. Ce document examine l’impact sur le marché du travail des catastrophes naturelles qui se sont produites récemment dans six pays de l’OCDE, expose dans leurs grandes lignes les politiques du marché du travail et de garantie de revenu mises en oeuvre pour venir en aide aux victimes, et examine les difficultés d’application de ces mesures au lendemain d’une catastrophe naturelle. Classification-JEL: J08; J63; J65; J68; Q54 Keywords: active labour market programme, displacement, natural disasters, unemployment benefits Creation-Date: 2012-11-29 Number: 142 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:142-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Michael J. Handel Title: Trends in Job Skill Demands in OECD Countries Abstract: This report examines skill trends in 24 OECD countries over the past several decades. The skill measures used include broad occupation groups, country-specific direct measures of skill requirements from international surveys, and direct skill measures from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) database applied to both United States and European labour force surveys. Each kind of data has its own strengths and limitations but they tell a consistent story.
Ce rapport examine les tendances en matière de compétences observées dans 24 pays de l’OCDE au cours de ces dernières décennies. Les mesures de compétence utilisées sont les groupes généraux de professions, les mesures directes des compétences requises par pays, fournies par les enquêtes internationales, et les mesures directes de compétence de la base de données Occupational Information Network (O*NET) appliquées dans les enquêtes sur la population active aux Etats-Unis et en Europe. Chaque type de données a ses propres forces et ses propres limites, mais tous donnent des résultats cohérents. Classification-JEL: J08; J23; J24 Keywords: human capital, skill-biased technological change, skills demand Creation-Date: 2012-11-28 Number: 143 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:143-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Sébastien Martin Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Role of Short-Time Working Schemes During the Global Financial Crisis and Early Recovery: A Cross-Country Analysis Abstract: There has been a strong interest in short-time work (STW) schemes during the global financial crisis. Using data for 23 OECD countries for the period 2004 Q1 to 2010 Q4, this paper analyses the quantitative effects of STW programmes on labour market outcomes by exploiting the country and time variation in STW take-up rates. The analysis takes account of differences in institutional settings across countries that might affect the relationship between labour market outcomes and output and also addresses the endogeneity of STW take-up with respect to labour market conditions. Moreover, special attention is given to the dynamic aspects of the relationship between output and labour market outcomes. The results indicate the STW raises hours flexibility by increasing the output elasticity of working time and helps to preserve jobs in the context of a recession by making employment and unemployment less elastic with respect to output. A key finding is that the timing of STW is crucial. While STW helped preserving a significant number of jobs during the crisis, its continued use during the recovery may have slowed the job-content of the recovery. By the end of 2010, the net effect of STW on employment was negligible or may even have become negative. However, the gross impact of STW on the number of jobs saved per quarter remains large and positive in the majority of countries.
Au cours de la crise financière, mondiale, il y a eu un fort intérêt pour les dispositifs de chômage partiel . A l’aide de données portant sur 23 pays de l’OCDE durant la période s’étendant du premier trimestre 2004 au quatrième trimestre 2010, cet article analyse les effets quantitatifs des programmes de chômage partiel sur les résultats obtenus sur le marché du travail en exploitant la variation entre les pays et dans le temps des taux de recours au chômage partiel. L'analyse tient compte des facteurs observables entre les pays qui pourraient affecter la relation entre la situation du marché du travail et la production et aborde également l'endogénéité du recours au chômage partiel par rapport aux conditions du marché du travail. En outre, une attention particulière est accordée à la modélisation des aspects dynamiques de la relation entre la production et les résultats obtenus sur le marché du travail. Les résultats indiquent que le chômage partiel élève la flexibilité des heures en augmentant l'élasticité de la production au temps de travail et aide à préserver les emplois dans le contexte d'une récession en rendant l’emploi et le chômage moins élastique par rapport à la production. Le facteur temps est crucial pour les dispositifs de chômage partiel et constitue une conclusion importante de cet article. Alors que le chômage partiel a contribué à préserver un nombre important d'emplois pendant la crise, son utilisation continue pendant la reprise peut avoir réduit le contenu en emplois de la reprise. À la fin de l’année 2010, l'effet net du chômage partiel sur l'emploi est devenu négligeable, voire négatif. Toutefois, l'impact brut sur le nombre d'emplois sauvés par trimestre reste important et positif dans la plupart des pays. Classification-JEL: J23; J65; J68 Keywords: global financial crisis, partial unemployment benefits, work-sharing Creation-Date: 2012-12-12 Number: 144 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:144-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD Abstract: This paper analyses the response of female labour force participation to the evolution of labour markets and policies supporting the reconciliation of work and family life. Using country-level data from the early 1980s for 18 OECD countries, we estimate the influence of labour market and institutional characteristics on female labour force participation, and full-time and part-time employment participation. The relationship (interactions, complementarity) between different policy measures is also analyzed, as well as potential variations in the influence of policies across different Welfare regimes. The results first highlight how the increase in female educational attainment, the expansion of the service sector the increase in parttime employment opportunities have boosted women’s participation in the labour force. By contrast, there is no such clear relationship between female employment rates and the growing share of public employment. Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation. Different policy instruments interact with each other to improve overall effectiveness. In particular, the coverage of childcare services is found to have a greater effect on women’s participation in the labour market in countries with relatively high degrees of employment protection. The effect of childcare services on female full-time employment is particularly strong in Anglophone and Nordic countries. In all, the findings suggest that the effect of childcare services on female employment is stronger in the presence of other measures supporting working mothers (as, for instance paid parental leave) while the presence of such supports seems to reduce the effectiveness of financial incentives to work for second earners. The effect of cash benefits for families and the duration of paid leave on female labour force participation also vary across welfare regimes.
Cet article analyse la réponse de la participation des femmes à la force de travail aux évolutions des marchés du travail et des politiques favorisant la conciliation entre travail et vie familiale. Exploitant des données pour 18 pays de l’OCDE depuis le début des années 1980s, on estime l’influence des caractéristiques du marché du travail et institutionnelles sur la participation des femmes au marché du travail, et sur leurs taux d’emploi à temps plein et à temps partiel. Les interactions et complémentarités potentielles entre les mesures politiques sont aussi testées, tout comme les possibles variations de l’influence des politiques entre les différents Etats-Providence. Les résultats montrent, en premier lieu, comment l’élévation des niveaux d’éducation féminins, l’expansion de l’emploi dans les services et le développement du temps partiel ont favorisé la participation des femmes au marché du travail. En revanche, le développement de l’emploi des femmes n’est pas aussi clairement lié à la croissance de l’emploi dans le secteur public. Les taux d’emploi féminins réagissent aux variations de taux d’imposition, aux politiques de congés, mais l’offre de services d’accueil pour les enfants de moins de trois ans semble être le facteur clé du développement de la participation des femmes au marché du travail. Les différentes mesures politiques interagissent et leurs effets se renforcent mutuellement. En particulier, la couverture des services d’accueil de la petite enfance ont un effet plus important sur la participation des femmes au marché du travail dans les pays offrant une plus grande protection de l’emploi. L’effet des services d’accueil de la petite enfance sur l’emploi à temps plein des femmes est particulièrement important dans les pays anglophones et d’Europe du Nord. Par ailleurs, les résultats suggèrent que l’effet des services de la petite enfance sur l’emploi des femmes est renforcé lorsqu’ils sont associés à d’autres mesures favorisant les mères qui travaillent (comme par exemple le congé payé parental), mais que celles-ci réduisent l’efficacité des incitations financières à travailler pour le partenaire. L’effet des aides financières familiales et de la durée des congés payés sur la participation des femmes au marché du travail varie également entre les différents systèmes de prestations sociales. Classification-JEL: J16; J18; J21 Keywords: family policy, female labour force participation, institutional complementarity, work-life balance Creation-Date: 2013-05-23 Number: 145 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:145-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Dominic Richardson Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Nabil Ali Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: An Evaluation of International Surveys of Children Abstract: This report evaluates sources of international child well-being data to assess their suitability for supplementing national and transnational data sources to inform policy. The review of the leading surveys of children (and surveys of households with children) summarises the information available from these sources and, as importantly, identifies the gaps in measuring child well-being outcomes not covered by data from these sources. The report then undertakes an in-depth evaluation of possible systematic bias in the underlying survey population to provide confidence in the reliability of outcomes measured from these international surveys. Based on the overall evaluation, the report concludes with recommendations for the use and improvement of international surveys for monitoring child well-being.
Ce rapport est une évaluation des sources de données internationales sur le bien-être des enfants. Il a pour objet de voir dans quelle mesure ces sources peuvent être utilisées en complément des sources nationales et transnationales pour éclairer les politiques publiques. Il commence par examiner les principales enquêtes sur les enfants (ainsi que sur les ménages avec enfants) afin d’inventorier les données qu’elles contiennent et surtout, de recenser les éléments du bien-être des enfants qui ne sont pas couverts par ces sources. Vient ensuite une évaluation approfondie des éventuels biais systématiques de la population observée dans ces enquêtes, ce qui permet d’évaluer la fiabilité des éléments mesurés dans ces études internationales. En conclusion, le rapport donne des recommandations, établies en fonction de l’évaluation globale, pour l’utilisation et l’amélioration des études internationales utilisées dans le cadre du suivi du bien-être des enfants. Classification-JEL: C83; J13 Keywords: child well-being, child well-being data and indicators, child well-being surveys Creation-Date: 2014-08-08 Number: 146 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:146-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mario Piacentini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Women Entrepreneurs in the OECD: Key Evidence and Policy Challenges Abstract: Important gender gaps in entrepreneurship exist. Men are three times more likely than women to own a business with employees. Women rarely own large businesses and their average earnings from selfemployment are up to 60% lower than for men. Cultural norms, stereotypes and lack of role models make women less interested in an entrepreneurial career and less confident in their capacities as entrepreneurs. Other obstacles such as time shortages and the composition of their professional networks lead women to start relatively small businesses, with low levels of initial capital and bank financing. These obstacles establish a competitive disadvantage for companies owned by women, which translates in levels of labour productivity that are 5 to 30% lower than those of companies owned by men. This paper also presents examples of policy initiatives in the domains of credit, training and awareness raising that can unlock the double dividend of women’s entrepreneurship: higher empowerment of women and more productive businesses. Better data and more analysis are an essential precondition for a more effective implementation of these policies.
En matière d’entreprenariat, des écarts importants entre les sexes existent. Les hommes sont trois fois plus susceptibles que les femmes de posséder une entreprise avec des employés. Les femmes possèdent rarement de grandes entreprises et leurs gains moyens en tant que travailleurs indépendants sont jusqu'à 60% inférieurs à ceux des hommes. Les normes culturelles, les stéréotypes et le manque de modèles d’entrepreneurs féminins rendent les femmes moins intéressées par une carrière entrepreneuriale et moins confiantes dans leurs capacités d'entrepreneurs. D'autres obstacles comme le manque de temps et la composition de leurs réseaux professionnels conduisent les femmes à démarrer des entreprises relativement petites, avec de faibles niveaux de capital initial et de financements bancaires. Ces obstacles gênèrent un désavantage concurrentiel pour les entreprises appartenant à des femmes, qui se traduit par des niveaux de productivité de 5 à 30% inférieurs à ceux des entreprises appartenant à des hommes. Ce document présente également des exemples d'initiatives politiques dans les domaines du crédit, de la formation et de la sensibilisation qui peuvent débloquer le ‘double dividende’ de l'entreprenariat des femmes: une plus grande émancipation économique de la femme et des entreprises plus productives. Des meilleures données et plus d’analyses sont des conditions essentielles pour une mise en oeuvre plus efficace de ces politiques. Classification-JEL: J01; J08; J16; L25; L26 Keywords: entrepreneurship data, entrepreneurship policies, gender Creation-Date: 2013-07-23 Number: 147 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:147-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Riyana Miranti Author-Name: Yogi Vidyattama Author-Name: Erick Hansnata Author-Name: Rebecca Cassells Author-Name: Alan Duncan Title: Trends in Poverty and Inequality in Decentralising Indonesia Abstract: As one of the world’s largest emerging economies, Indonesia has experienced rapid economic growth and substantial reduction of poverty over the past three decades, particularly prior to the 1997-98 Asian Financial Crisis. After the crisis, Indonesia entered a new development phase that saw the fall of the Suharto government and new governance which moved highly centralised policies and powers towards a decentralised process. This research report analyses economic and social patterns and trends of poverty and inequality in Indonesia with a particular focus on the decentralisation period from 2001 to 2010.The Indonesian political and economic environment has changed significantly during this period and this had implications for individual wellbeing, regional economic prosperity and national economic growth. The report finds that in general, absolute poverty rates have continued to decline during the decentralisation period although the reduction has not been as strong as it was prior to the Asian economic crisis. In contrast, consumption inequality has increased during the same period. New estimates of growth and inequality elasticity of poverty suggest that this rising inequality has been offsetting the positive benefits of consumption growth on poverty.
En tant que l'une des plus grandes économies émergentes du monde, l'Indonésie a connu une croissance économique rapide et une réduction substantielle de la pauvreté au cours des trois dernières décennies, en particulier avant la crise financière asiatique de 1997-1998. Après cette crise, l'Indonésie est entrée dans une nouvelle phase de développement qui a vu la chute du gouvernement Suharto, et qui a connu une nouvelle gouvernance délaçant des politiques et des pouvoirs fortement centralisés vers un processus décentralisé. Ce rapport analyse les caractéristiques et tendances économiques et sociales de la pauvreté et de l'inégalité en Indonésie, avec un accent particulier sur la période de décentralisation de 2001 à 2010. L’environnement politique et économique indonésien a considérablement changé au cours de cette période. Cela a eu des répercussions sur le bien-être individuel, la prospérité économique régionale et à la croissance économique nationale. Le rapport constate qu'en général, les taux de pauvreté absolue ont continué à baisser au cours de la période de décentralisation, mais la baisse n'a pas été aussi forte qu'elle l'avait été avant la crise économique asiatique. En revanche, les inégalités (mesurées par la consommation) ont augmenté durant la même période. Des nouvelles estimations de la croissance et de l'élasticité de l'inégalité de la pauvreté suggèrent que cette inégalité croissante a compensé les effets positifs de la croissance de la consommation sur la pauvreté. Classification-JEL: I32; I38; R12 Keywords: inequality, poverty, poverty alleviation strategy, regional disparities Creation-Date: 2013-07-23 Number: 148 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:148-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Angelica Salvi del Pero Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Alexandra Bytchkova Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: A Bird's Eye View of Gender Differences in Education in OECD Countries Abstract: This paper presents an overview of gender differences in education outcomes in OECD countries. A rich set of indicators describes the improvement of educational attainment among women over the past decades, and various dimensions of male under-performance in education. Possible explanatory factors include incentives provided by changing employment opportunities for women, demographic trends, as well as the higher sensitivity of boys to disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. Gender differences in field of study and in performance by subject are found to be related to attitudes and self-perceptions towards academic subjects, which are in turn influenced by social norms. A number of policy options to address gender gaps are presented in the final section of the paper.
Ce document présente un aperçu des différences entre garçons et filles dans les résultats scolaires des pays de l’OCDE. Les indicateurs utilisés décrivent l’amélioration du niveau d’instruction des femmes au cours des dernières décennies et les différents domaines dans lesquels les garçons obtiennent des résultats inférieurs par rapport aux filles. Parmi les explications avancées figurent les politiques encourageant les opportunités d’emploi pour les femmes, les tendances démographiques ainsi que la vulnérabilité accrue des garçons issus de milieux socio-économiques défavorisés. Les différences entre hommes et femmes dans le domaine des études et dans les résultats scolaires par discipline tiennent aux mentalités et à l’autoperception des disciplines, et sont elles-mêmes influencées par les normes sociales. La dernière section du document présente un certain nombre de mesures pouvant combler les disparités entre hommes et femmes. Classification-JEL: I21; I23; I28; J16 Keywords: attitudes, college major, education attainment, gender, PISA, student performance Creation-Date: 2013-09-05 Number: 149 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:149-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Linda Richardson Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Redistribution Policy in Europe and the United States: Is the Great Recession a 'Game Changer' for Working-age Families? Abstract: Working-age individuals and their families have experienced increases in relative income poverty before the Great Recession (GR), and they have also seen significant income losses since the beginning of the downturn in 2007/8. This paper examines the effects of benefit and tax reforms on the distribution of incomes of non-elderly individuals in Europe and in the United States both before and after the GR. We aim to place recent policy responses in context of both the broader trends in redistribution patterns observed since the 1980s, and the immediate crisis-related challenges, including a much greater need for government support, and large and rapidly growing government debt. Analysis of historical household income data confirms the common finding that redistribution reduces income inequalities by much less in the US than in much of Europe. Since more redistributive tax-transfer systems tend to be more effective as a backstop to widening earnings gaps, redistribution in the US was also less effective at offsetting the substantial increase in the market-income inequality in the 2-3 decades leading up to the GR. Focussing on more recent policy changes, we then calculate income gains and losses that can be attributed to reforms shortly before and after the GR at different points in the earnings spectrum. The results show that a combination of discretionary and automatic policy changes in the US have significantly narrowed the pre-GR gap between the equalising capacities of US and European redistribution measures, and between their abilities to cushion the effects of economic shocks on household income. We argue, however, that this is unlikely to signify any longer-term convergence, and that Europe/US comparisons need to go beyond the common focus on differences in redistribution levels. In our view, an equally important question is how well redistribution measures respond and adapt to evolving social and fiscal challenges at different points in the economic cycle.
Les individus d'âge actif et leurs familles ont été exposés à une aggravation de la pauvreté relative avant la Grande Récession et ont également essuyé des pertes de revenu non négligeables depuis le début de la récession de 2007-08. Le présent document a pour objet d'examiner les effets des réformes des prestations et des prélèvements fiscaux sur la distribution des revenus des individus non âgés en Europe et aux États-Unis, tant avant qu'après la Grande Récession. Nous nous donnons pour objectif de replacer les mesures gouvernementales prises récemment face à la récession dans le contexte des grandes tendances se dégageant des schémas de redistribution observés depuis les années 80 et des difficultés immédiates liées à la crise, dont la nécessité devenue beaucoup plus aigüe d'un soutien des pouvoirs publics et un endettement élevé des États qui tend à se creuser rapidement. L'analyse des données historiques relatives aux revenus des ménages confirme l'idée communément admise selon laquelle la redistribution réduit beaucoup moins les inégalités de revenus aux États-Unis que dans la plus grande partie de l'Europe. Les systèmes de prélèvements et de prestations plus redistributifs étant généralement plus efficaces pour enrayer le creusement des écarts de revenus, la redistribution a également été une arme moins efficace aux États-Unis pour contrebalancer l'aggravation notable des inégalités de revenu marchand constatée pendant les vingt à trente années ayant précédé la Grande Récession. Revenant aux réorientations plus récentes de l'action publique, nous calculons ensuite les gains et pertes de revenu imputables aux réformes mises en oeuvre peu avant et peu après la Grande Récession en différents points du spectre des gains. Les résultats obtenus montrent qu'aux États-Unis, les effets conjugués des inflexions de l'action publique à caractère automatique ou discrétionnaire ont sensiblement réduit l'écart qui existait avant la Grande Récession entre la capacité de nivellement des revenus du système américain et celle résultant des mesures de redistribution en vigueur en Europe ainsi qu'entre les capacités respectives des systèmes américain et européen à atténuer les effets des crises économiques sur le revenu des ménages. Selon nous, il n'est toutefois guère probable que cela annonce une convergence à long terme et il faut s'affranchir, dans les comparaisons entre Europe et États- Unis, de la tendance à se polariser sur les différences entre les niveaux de redistribution. De notre point de vue, il est tout aussi important de se demander jusqu'à quel point les mesures de redistribution répondent et sont adaptées à des défis sociaux et budgétaires en constante évolution à différents moments du cycle économique. Creation-Date: 2013-06-17 Number: 150 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:150-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Leopoldo Mondauto Author-Workplace-Name: Italia Lavoro Author-Name: Stefano Scarpetta Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Perverse Effects of Job-security Provisions on Job Security in Italy: Results from a Regression Discontinuity Design Abstract: This paper analyses the impact of employment protection (EP) on the composition of the workforce and worker turnover using a unique firm-level dataset for Italy. The impact of employment protection is analysed by means of a regression discontinuity design (RDD) that exploits the variation in EP provisions across firms below and above a size threshold. Using our RDD approach, we show that EP increases worker reallocation, suggesting that EP tends to reduce rather to increase worker security on average. We further show that this can be entirely explained by the fact that firms facing more stringent EP make a greater use of workers on temporary contracts. Our preferred estimates suggest that the discontinuity in EP increases the incidence of temporary work by 2-2.5 percentage points around the threshold. Moreover, further analysis suggests that the effect of employment protection persists among larger firms well beyond the threshold and may account for about 20% of the overall incidence of temporary work. There is also evidence that EP reduces labour productivity and this effect is to an important extent due to the impact of EP on worker reallocation and the incidence of temporary work.
Cet article analyse l'impact de la protection de l'emploi (PE) sur la composition de la main-d’oeuvre et la rotation des travailleurs en utilisant un ensemble unique de données au niveau des entreprises pour l'Italie. L'impact de la protection de l'emploi est analysé au moyen d’une méthode de régression par discontinuité (RD) qui exploite la variation des dispositions de la PE entre les entreprises de taille inférieure ou supérieure à un certain seuil. À l’aide de notre approche RD, nous montrons que la PE accroît la réallocation des travailleurs, indiquant que la PE a tendance, en moyenne, à réduire plutôt qu’à accroître la sécurité de l’emploi des travailleurs. Nous montrons de plus que cela peut être entièrement expliqué par le fait que les entreprises confrontées à une PE plus stricte recourent plus largement à des travailleurs sous contrats temporaires. Nos estimations privilégiées suggèrent que la discontinuité de la PE augmente l'incidence du travail temporaire de 2 à 2,5 points de pourcentage autour de la valeur seuil. En outre, une analyse plus détaillée suggère que l'effet de la protection de l'emploi persiste parmi les grandes entreprises bien au-delà du seuil et peut représenter environ 20% de l'incidence globale du travail temporaire. Il semble également que la PE réduit la productivité du travail et que cet effet est dans une large mesure dû à l'impact de la PE sur la réallocation des travailleurs et l'incidence du travail temporaire. Classification-JEL: J42; J63; J65 Keywords: employment protection, labour market duality, temporary work contract, worker reallocation Creation-Date: 2013-07-04 Number: 151 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:151-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anabela Carneiro Author-Workplace-Name: University of Porto Author-Name: Pedro Portugal Author-Workplace-Name: Bank of Portugal Author-Name: Jose Varejão Author-Workplace-Name: University of Porto Title: Catastrophic Job Destruction Abstract: In this article we study the resilience of the Portuguese labor market, in terms of job flows, employment and wage developments, in the context of the current recession. We single out the huge contribution of job destruction, especially due to the closing of existing firms, to the dramatic decline of total employment and increase of the unemployment rate. We also document the very large increase in the incidence of minimum wage earners and nominal wage freezes. We explored three different channels that may have amplified the employment response to the great recession: the credit channel, the wage rigidity channel, and the labor market segmentation channel. We uncovered what we believe is convincing evidence that the severity of credit constraints played a significant role in the current job destruction process. Wage rigidity is seen to be associated with lower net job creation and higher failure rates of firms. Finally, labor market segmentation seemed to have favored a stronger job destruction that was facilitated by an increasing number of temporary workers
Dans cet article, nous analysons la résilience du marché du travail portugais, en termes de mouvements de main d’oeuvre, d'emplois et d'évolution des salaires, dans le contexte de la récession actuelle. Nous mettons en évidence la contribution significative des destructions d'emplois, notamment en raison des fermetures d’entreprises, à la baisse importante de l'emploi total et à l'augmentation du taux de chômage. Nous examinons également le très fort accroissement du nombre de travailleurs rémunérés au salaire minimum et le gel des salaires nominaux. Nous explorons trois différentes causes pouvant avoir amplifié la réaction de l'emploi à la grande recession : l’accès au crédit, la rigidité des salaires, et la segmentation du marché du travail. Nous mettons en lumière une preuve, que nous jugeons convaincante, que la rigueur des contraintes de crédit pesant sur les entreprises a joué un rôle important dans le processus actuel de destruction d’emplois. La rigidité des salaires est considérée comme allant de pair avec une création nette d'emplois plus faible et des taux plus élevés de faillite d'entreprises. Enfin, la segmentation du marché du travail semble avoir favorisé des destructions d'emplois plus fortes rendues possibles par un nombre croissant de travailleurs temporaires. Classification-JEL: E24; J23; J63 Keywords: credit constraints, job destruction, segmentation, wage rigidities Creation-Date: 2013-09-23 Number: 152 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:152-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Michele Pellizzari Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Anne Fichen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: A New Measure of Skills Mismatch: Theory and Evidence from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) Abstract: This paper proposes a new measure of skills mismatch that combines information about skill proficiency, self-reported mismatch and skill use. The theoretical foundations underling this measure allow identifying minimum and maximum skill requirements for each occupation and to classify workers into three groups, the well-matched, the under-skilled and the over-skilled. The availability of skill use data further permit the computation of the degree of under and overusage of skills in the economy. The empirical analysis is carried out using the first wave of the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) and the findings are compared across skill domains, labour market status and countries.
Ce document présente une nouvelle mesure de l’inadéquation des compétences qui combine des informations sur la maîtrise des compétences, l’inadéquation auto-reportée et l’utilisation des compétences. Les fondements théoriques de cette mesure permettent d’identifier les compétences minimales et maximales requises par chaque profession et de classer les travailleurs en trois groupes : ceux dont les compétences sont bien adaptées, ceux qui ont des compétences inférieures à celles requises et ceux qui ont des compétences supérieures à celles requises. L’existence de données sur l’usage des compétences permet de mesurer le degré de sur- ou de sous-utilisation des compétences dans l’économie. Cette mesure est testée sur la première vague de l’enquête de l’OCDE sur l’évaluation des compétences des adultes ; les résultats sont présentés par domaines de compétences, par statuts sur le marché du travail et par pays. Classification-JEL: J0; J20; J24 Keywords: mismatch, skills Creation-Date: 2013-12-19 Number: 153 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:153-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Sébastien Martin Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Same Same but Different: School-to-work Transitions in Emerging and Advanced Economies Abstract: Improving school-to-work transitions and ensuring better career opportunities for youth after labour market entrance are common goals in emerging and advanced economies as they can contribute to raising the productive potential of the economy and to increasing social cohesion. However, the challenges faced in achieving these objectives and the policies required vary between emerging and advanced economies. This paper analyses youth labour market outcomes in 16 countries: eight emerging countries and eight advanced economies. In light of this analysis, it also discusses differences and similarities in the policy measures countries have at their disposal to tackle the key emerging challenges.
Améliorer les transitions de l’école à l’emploi et assurer aux jeunes des meilleures opportunités professionnelles après l’entrée sur le marché du travail sont des buts partagés par les pays développés et émergents car ils peuvent contribuer à augmenter le potentiel productif de l’économie et à accroitre la cohésion sociale. Toutefois, les défis auxquels les pays sont confrontés pour atteindre ces objectifs et les politiques requises varient entre les pays émergents et les économies plus avancées. Ce document analyse la réussite des jeunes sur le marché du travail dans 16 pays : huit pays émergents et huit économies avancées. En vue de cette analyse, ce document expose les différences et similarités dans les mesures de politique économique que les pays ont à leur disposition pour faire face aux défis émergeants. Classification-JEL: I28; J08; J21; J38; J41 Creation-Date: 2014-01-28 Number: 154 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:154-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Julia Jauer Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Thomas Liebig Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: John P. Martin Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Patrick Puhani Author-Workplace-Name: Leibniz Universität Hannover Title: Migration as an Adjustment Mechanism in the Crisis? A Comparison of Europe and the United States Abstract: The question of whether migration can be an equilibrating force in the labour market is an important criterion for an optimal currency area. It is of particular interest currently in the context of high and rising levels of labour market disparities, in particular within the Eurozone where there is no exchange-rate mechanism available to play this role. We shed some new light on this question by comparing pre- and post-crisis migration movements at the regional level in both Europe and the United States, and their association with asymmetric labour market shocks. We find that recent migration flows have reacted quite significantly to the EU enlargements in 2004 and 2007 and to changes in labour market conditions, particularly in Europe. Indeed, in contrast to the pre-crisis situation and the findings of previous empirical studies, there is tentative evidence that the migration response to the crisis has been considerable in Europe, in contrast to the United States where the crisis and subsequent sluggish recovery were not accompanied by greater interregional labour mobility in reaction to labour market shocks. Our estimates suggest that, if all measured population changes in Europe were due to migration for employment purposes – i.e. an upper-bound estimate – up to about a quarter of the asymmetric labour market shock would be absorbed by migration within a year. However, in the Eurozone the reaction mainly stems from migration of third-country nationals. Even within the group of Eurozone nationals, a significant part of the free mobility stems from immigrants from third countries who have taken on the nationality of their Eurozone host country.
La question de savoir si la migration peut être une force d'équilibre sur le marché du travail est un critère non négligeable pour l’optimisation d’une zone monétaire. Elle est particulièrement importante dans un contexte où les disparités du marché du travail connaissent des niveaux élevés et croissants, en particulier au sein de la zone euro où il n'existe pas de mécanisme de taux de change à même de jouer ce rôle. Nous espérons apporter un éclairage nouveau sur cette question en comparant les flux migratoires avant et après la crise au niveau régional en Europe et aux États-Unis , et leur combinaison avec les chocs asymétriques du marché du travail. Nous avons constaté que les flux migratoires récents ont réagi de manière assez significative aux élargissements de l'UE en 2004 et 2007 et aux changements du marché du travail, en particulier en Europe. En effet, contrairement à la situation qui prévalait avant la crise et aux résultats des études empiriques antérieures, il semblerait que la réponse de la migration à la crise ait été considérable en Europe, contrairement aux États-Unis où la crise et la faible reprise ultérieure n'ont pas été accompagnées par une plus grande mobilité interrégionale des travailleurs en réaction aux chocs du marché du travail. Nos estimations semblent suggérer que si tous les changements de population mesurés en Europe sont dus à la migration à des fins d'emploi - c'est à dire une estimation de la limite supérieure - jusqu'à environ un quart des chocs asymétriques du marché du travail seraient absorbés par la migration dans l'année. Cependant, dans la zone euro, cette réaction s'explique principalement par la migration de ressortissants de pays tiers. Même au sein du groupe des ressortissants de la zone euro, une partie importante des mouvements de libre circulation émanent de migrants de pays tiers ayant pris la nationalité de leur pays d'accueil de la zone euro. Classification-JEL: F15; F16; F22; J61 Keywords: economic crisis, Europe, Eurozone, free mobility, labour market adjustments, migration, United States Creation-Date: 2014-01-09 Number: 155 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:155-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gwenn Parent Author-Workplace-Name: OCDE Title: Retour à l'emploi des chômeurs seniors français ayant bénéficié d'un accompagnement renforcé vers l'emploi en 2009 et 2010 : Enquête auprès des salariés licenciés pour motif économique et des publics en difficulté d'insertion Abstract: Cet article étudie les perspectives de retour à l’emploi en France à l’issue de dispositifs d’accompagnement renforcé délivrés par Pôle emploi ou des opérateurs privés en 2009 et 2010, selon l’âge des bénéficiaires. Ces dispositifs d’accompagnement renforcé sont distincts de l’accompagnement renforcé introduit à partir de 2013 dans la nouvelle offre de service de Pôle emploi, dans le cadre du plan stratégique « Pôle emploi 2015 »...
This article analyses age differences in several labour market outcomes in France for participants of intensive case management programmes, delivered in 2009 and 2010 by the public employment service (PES) or private providers. These programmes are different from the intensive case management service introduced from 2013 by the PES in its new services offer (strategic plan « Pôle emploi 2015 »)... Classification-JEL: J14; J21; J63; J68 Keywords: accompagnement renforcé, retour à l’emploi, seniors, travailleurs âgés Creation-Date: 2014-06-02 Number: 156 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:156-FR Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Nabil Ali Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Workplace-Name: Institut national d'études démographiques Title: Changes in Family Policies and Outcomes: Is there Convergence? Abstract: This paper presents new information on trends in family and child outcomes and policies over the past decades, in order to assess whether there has been any convergence over time across OECD and EU countries. Important drivers of population structure such as life expectancy and fertility rates are becoming more similar across countries as are marriage and divorce rates. Increased educational attainment has contributed to greater female employment participation and convergence therein across countries. Child well-being outcomes show a more mixed pattern with improvements and convergence in infant mortality, but varying trends in child poverty across countries. Classification-JEL: D1; J12; J13; J18 Keywords: Child Care and Parental leave, Family and Child outcomes, female employment, Taxes and Benefits Creation-Date: 2014-07-11 Number: 157 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:157-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Skills at Work: How Skills and their Use Matter in the Labour Market Abstract: Human capital is key for economic growth. Not only is it linked to aggregate economic performance but also to each individual’s labour market outcomes. However, a skilled population is not enough to achieve high and inclusive growth, as skills need to be put into productive use at work. Thanks to the availability of measures of both the proficiency and the use of numerous types of skills, the Survey of Adult Skills offers a unique opportunity to advance knowledge in this area and this paper presents and discusses evidence on both these dimensions with a particular focus on their implications for labour market policy. This paper explores the role played in the labour market by skill proficiency in the areas of literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments. It also shows how skills use, not only proficiency, affects a number of key labour market phenomena, such as the gender wage gap. Finally, the paper combines information on skill proficiency, educational attainment, skill use and qualification requirements to construct indicators of qualification and skills mismatch and to explore their causes and consequences.
Le capital humain est fondamental pour la croissance économique. Non seulement, il est lié à la performance économique à niveau agrégé mais il contribue aussi à la réussite individuelle sur le marché du travail. Toutefois, une population aux compétences élevées ne suffit pas pour obtenir une croissance soutenue et équitable, car les compétences doivent être utilisées de façon productive au travail. Grâce à la disponibilité de données sur les compétences dans plusieurs domaines et leurs utilisation au travail, l’Enquête sur les Compétences des Adultes (PIAAC) offre une opportunité unique d’améliorer les connaissances à ce sujet. Ce papier présente et discute ces deux dimensions en prêtant une attention particulière aux implication pour les politiques du marché du travail. Il analyse le rôle que les compétences en littératie, numératie et résolution de problème dans un environnement riche en technologie jouent sur le marché du travail. Il montre aussi comment l’utilisation de ces compétences, et non seulement leur niveau, impacte sur un nombre important de phénomènes du marché du travail, comme par exemple la différence entre la rémunération des femmes et des hommes. Pour conclure, ce papier joint l’information concernant les compétences en littératie et numératie et leur utilisation au travail ainsi que le niveau d’éducation des travailleurs et celui demandé dans leurs postes pour dériver des indicateurs d’apparemment entre l’offre et la demande de compétences et qualifications et en analyser les causes et les conséquences. Classification-JEL: I25; J08; J21; J24; J31 Creation-Date: 2014-05-13 Number: 158 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:158-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Michael Förster Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Ana Llena-Nozal Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Vahé Nafilyan Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Trends in Top Incomes and their Taxation in OECD Countries Abstract: The shares of top income recipients in total pre-tax income have increased in OECD countries in the past three decades, particularly in most of the English-speaking countries but also in some Nordic (from low levels) and Southern European countries. Today, the richest one percent receives between 7% of all pre-tax income in Denmark and the Netherlands up to almost 20% in the United States. This increase is the result of the top 1% capturing a disproportionate share of overall income growth over the past thirty years: around 20 – 25% in Australia and the United Kingdom, up to 37% in Canada and even 47% in the United States. At the same time, tax reforms in almost all OECD countries reduced top personal income tax rates as well as rates of other taxes affecting the highest income earners. Indeed, while top tax rates were equal to or above 70% in half of the countries in the mid-1970s, this rate has been halved in many countries by 2013.
Au cours des trois dernières décennies, la part du revenu avant impôts revenant aux titulaires de hauts revenus a augmenté au sein des pays de l’OCDE, en particulier dans la plupart des pays anglophones mais aussi dans certains pays nordiques (démarrant toutefois d’un niveau relativement bas) et certains pays du sud de l’Europe. Aujourd’hui, les un pourcent les plus riches perçoivent entre 7% du revenu individuel total avant impôts au Danemark et aux Pays-Bas et presque 20% aux États-Unis. Cette forte progression est le résultat d’un partage inéquitable des fruits de la croissance des revenus aux cours des trente dernières années. En effet, entre 20% et 25% des bénéfices de la croissance est captée par les un pourcent les plus riches en Australie et au Royaume-Uni, et jusqu’à 37% au Canada, voire 47% aux États-Unis. Dans le même temps, les réformes fiscales de la plupart des pays de l’OCDE ont été dans le sens d’une réduction des taux d’imposition et d’autres taxes affectant les plus hauts revenus. Ainsi, alors que les taux d’imposition des plus hauts revenus étaient aux alentours de 70% dans la moitié des pays de l’OCDE dans les années 70, ils sont, en 2013, réduits de moitié dans de nombreux pays. Classification-JEL: D31; D63; H20 Creation-Date: 2014-05-15 Number: 159 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:159-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cansin Arslan Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Jean-Christophe Dumont Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Zovanga Kone Author-Workplace-Name: Oxford University Author-Name: Yasser Moullan Author-Workplace-Name: Oxford University Author-Name: Caglar Ozden Author-Workplace-Name: The World Bank Author-Name: Christopher Parsons Author-Workplace-Name: Oxford University Author-Name: Theodora Xenogiani Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: A New Profile of Migrants in the Aftermath of the Recent Economic Crisis Abstract: Growing international migration and diverse characteristics of migrant populations make internationally comparable high-quality data on migrants essential. Regular update of these data is crucial to capture the changes in size and composition of migrant populations. This document presents the first results of the update of the Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC) for 2010/11. It describes immigrant and emigrant populations by socio-demographic characteristics and labour market outcomes in the OECD, and shows their evolution in the past decade. It also provides updated emigration rates and brain drain figures...
L’accroissement des migrations internationales et les caractéristiques particulières des populations immigrés nécessitent de produire des données de qualité comparables au niveau international. La mise à jour régulière de ces données est essentielle pour bien saisir les changements dans la taille et la composition des populations migrantes. Ce document présente les premiers résultats de la mise à jour de la base de données sur les immigrés dans les pays de l'OCDE (DIOC) pour 2010/11. Il décrit les populations immigrées et émigrées selon leurs caractéristiques sociodémographiques et leurs résultats sur le marché du travail des pays de l'OCDE, et montre leur évolution au cours de la dernière décennie. Il fournit également des taux d'émigration mis à jour et des données sur la fuite des cerveaux... Classification-JEL: F22; J15; J24; J61; O15 Keywords: DIOC, education, emigration rates, global crisis, high-skilled migrants, international migration, migrant stocks Creation-Date: 2015-01-26 Number: 160 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:160-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Iris Arends Author-Workplace-Name: University of Groningen Author-Name: Niklas Baer Author-Workplace-Name: Psychiatrie Baselland Author-Name: Veerle Miranda Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Christopher Prinz Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Shruti Singh Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Mental Health and Work: Achieving Well-integrated Policies and Service Delivery Abstract: Mental ill-health can lead to poor work performance, high sickness absence and reduced labour market participation, resulting in considerable costs for society. Improving labour market participation of people with mental health problems requires well-integrated policies and services across the education, employment, health and social sectors. This paper provides examples of policy initiatives from 10 OECD countries for integrated services. Outcomes and strengths and weaknesses of the policy initiatives are presented, resulting in the following main conclusions for future integrated mental health and work policies and services: More rigorous implementation and evaluation of integrated policies is necessary to improve labour market outcomes. Implementation cannot be left to the discretion of stakeholders only; Better financial incentives and clearer obligations and guidelines need to be provided to stakeholders and professionals to participate in integrated service delivery; Each sector has a responsibility to assure integrated services in line with client needs, in turn requiring much better knowledge about the needs of clients with a mental illness; More integrated provision of services within each sector – e.g. through employment advice brought into the mental health system and psychological expertise brought into employment services – appears to be the easiest and most cost-effective approach.
La mauvaise santé mentale peut conduire à une moindre performance au travail, une forte incidence de l’absentéisme pour maladie et un taux d’activité réduit, ce qui entraîne des coûts considérables pour la société. Améliorer la participation sur le marché du travail des personnes ayant des troubles mentaux exige des politiques et des services intégrés dans les domaines de l’éducation, l'emploi, la santé et les secteurs sociaux. Ce rapport propose des exemples d'initiatives politiques provenant de 10 pays de l'OCDE pour des services intégrées et présente leurs résultats ainsi que les points forts et les faiblesses. Les principales conclusions pour l'avenir des politiques et des services intégrés dans les domaines de santé mentale et de l’emploi sont les suivantes: Une mise en oeuvre et une évaluation plus rigoureuse des politiques intégrées sont nécessaires pour améliorer les résultats du marché du travail. La mise en oeuvre ne peut pas être laissée à la discrétion des parties concernés seulement ; Le renforcement des incitations financières et des obligations et des lignes directrices plus claires doivent être fournis aux parties concernés et aux professionnels pour participer à la prestation de services intégrés ; Chaque secteur a la responsabilité d'assurer des services intégrés en fonction des besoins des clients, ce qui exige à son tour une meilleure connaissance des besoins des clients avec des troubles mentaux ; Plus de prestations de services intégrés au sein de chaque secteur – par exemple des conseils de l'emploi incorporés dans le système de santé mentale et de l'expertise psychologique incorporé dans les services de l'emploi – semble être l'approche la plus simple et la plus rentable. Classification-JEL: I18; I28; I38; J18; J28 Creation-Date: 2014-11-20 Number: 161 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:161-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Stephen P. Jenkins Author-Workplace-Name: London School of Economics Author-Name: Sebastian Königs Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Are Recipients of Social Assistance 'Benefit Dependent'?: Concepts, Measurement and Results for Selected Countries Abstract: Means-tested Social Assistance (SA) benefits play an important role as social protection floors sup-porting households in financial difficulties. This paper presents evidence on the patterns of SA benefit re-ceipt in a selection of OECD and EU countries. It provides an overview of the role of SA benefits in social protection systems and assesses the generosity of benefit payments. It then studies the dynamics of SA benefit receipt based on micro-level data describing trends in aggregate receipt and transition rates and presenting new evidence on spell durations and repeat spells. The final part of the paper summarizes recent empirical evidence on state dependence (or ‘scarring effects’) in benefit receipt and discusses its possible sources and policy implications.
Les prestations de l’Assistance sociale (AS) sous conditions de ressources jouent un rôle important en tant que socles de protection sociale en soutenant les ménages en difficultés financières. Ce document présente des données sur les types de prestations d’aide sociale dans une sélection de pays de l'OCDE et de l'UE. Il donne un aperçu du rôle des prestations d'aide sociale dans les systèmes de protection sociale et évalue la générosité des prestations versées. Il étudie ensuite les dynamiques de réception de prestations d’aide sociale sur la base de micro données en décrivant les tendances globales de réception et les taux de transition et présentant de nouvelles données sur la durée des épisodes et les périodes de répétition. La dernière partie du document résume les données empiriques récentes sur les effets de persistance dans la réception des prestations et examine ses sources éventuelles et implications politiques. Classification-JEL: C33; C35; I38 Creation-Date: 2015-01-07 Number: 162 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:162-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Federico Cingano Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Trends in Income Inequality and its Impact on Economic Growth Abstract: In most OECD countries, the gap between rich and poor is at its highest level since 30 years. Today, the richest 10 per cent of the population in the OECD area earn 9.5 times the income of the poorest 10 per cent; in the 1980s this ratio stood at 7:1 and has been rising continuously ever since. However, the rise in overall income inequality is not (only) about surging top income shares: often, incomes at the bottom grew much slower during the prosperous years and fell during downturns, putting relative (and in some countries, absolute) income poverty on the radar of policy concerns. This paper explores whether such developments may have an impact on economic performance. Drawing on harmonised data covering the OECD countries over the past 30 years, the econometric analysis suggests that income inequality has a negative and statistically significant impact on subsequent growth. In particular, what matters most is the gap between low income households and the rest of the population. In contrast, no evidence is found that those with high incomes pulling away from the rest of the population harms growth. The paper also evaluates the “human capital accumulation theory” finding evidence for human capital as a channel through which inequality may affect growth. Analysis based on micro data from the Adult Skills Survey (PIAAC) shows that increased income disparities depress skills development among individuals with poorer parental education background, both in terms of the quantity of education attained (e.g. years of schooling), and in terms of its quality (i.e. skill proficiency). Educational outcomes of individuals from richer backgrounds, however, are not affected by inequality. It follows that policies to reduce income inequalities should not only be pursued to improve social outcomes but also to sustain long-term growth. Redistribution policies via taxes and transfers are a key tool to ensure the benefits of growth are more broadly distributed and the results suggest they need not be expected to undermine growth. But it is also important to promote equality of opportunity in access to and quality of education. This implies a focus on families with children and youths – as this is when decisions about human capital accumulation are made -- promoting employment for disadvantaged groups through active labour market policies, childcare supports and in-work benefits.
Dans la plupart des pays de l'OCDE, le fossé entre riches et pauvres est à son plus haut niveau depuis 30 ans. Aujourd'hui, dans la zone de l'OCDE, les 10% de la population les plus riches gagnent 9,5 fois le revenu des 10 % les plus pauvres; dans les années 1980, ce ratio s'élevait à 7: 1 et il a augmenté de façon continue depuis. Toutefois, la hausse de l'inégalité de revenu n'est pas (seulement) relative à la flambée de la part des plus hauts revenus : souvent, les revenus les plus bas ont augmenté beaucoup plus lentement pendant les années prospères, et sont tombés en période de ralentissement économique, mettant la pauvreté monétaire relative (et, dans certains pays, absolue) sur le radar des préoccupations politiques. Ce document cherche à savoir si ces évolutions peuvent avoir un impact sur la performance économique. S'appuyant sur des données harmonisées couvrant les pays de l'OCDE au cours des 30 dernières années, l'analyse économétrique suggère que les inégalités de revenus ont un impact négatif et statistiquement significatif sur la croissance ultérieure. En particulier, ce qui importe le plus est l'écart entre les ménages à faible revenu et le reste de la population. En revanche, aucune preuve n'est trouvée sur le fait que les personnes ayant des revenus élevés s'élevant loin du reste de la population nuit à la croissance. Le document évalue également la «théorie de l'accumulation du capital humain" montrant le capital humain comme un canal par lequel les inégalités peuvent affecter la croissance. L'analyse fondée sur les micro données de l'Enquête sur les compétences des adultes (PIAAC) montre que l'augmentation des disparités de revenus inhibent le développement des compétences chez les personnes dont les parents ont un faible niveau d'instruction, aussi bien sur le plan quantitatif du niveau de scolarité atteint (par exemple, en années de scolarité), qu'en termes de qualité (niveau de compétences). Les résultats scolaires des personnes issues de milieux les plus riches, toutefois, ne sont pas affectés par les inégalités. Il s'ensuit que les politiques visant à réduire les inégalités de revenus ne doivent pas seulement être poursuivies pour améliorer les résultats sociaux, mais aussi pour soutenir la croissance à long terme. Les politiques de redistribution via les impôts et les transferts sont un outil essentiel pour s'assurer que les bénéfices de la croissance sont plus largement distribués et les résultats suggèrent qu'on ne doit pas forcément s'attendre à ce que la redistribution nuise à la croissance. Mais il est également important de promouvoir l'égalité des chances dans l'accès et la qualité de l'éducation. Ceci implique de mettre l'accent sur les familles avec enfants et les jeunes - car c'est lorsque les décisions sur l'accumulation de capital humain sont prises - par la promotion de l'emploi pour les groupes défavorisés, grâce à des politiques actives du marché du travail, des supports de gardes d'enfants et des prestations d'activité. Classification-JEL: H23; J62; O15; O47 Creation-Date: 2014-12-09 Number: 163 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:163-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stéphane Carcillo Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernández Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Sebastian Königs Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Andreea Minea Author-Workplace-Name: Sciences Po, Paris Title: NEET Youth in the Aftermath of the Crisis: Challenges and Policies Abstract: This paper presents an overview of the situation of youth in OECD countries since the onset of the financial crisis focusing primarily on describing the characteristics and living conditions of youth not in employment, education or training (the ‘NEETs’). It also provides data on the availability, coverage and effectiveness of income-support policies for young people, and summarises available evidence on the impact of interventions that aim at improving the social, education and employment situation of the most disadvantaged youth. Due to the paper’s explicit focus on the hardest-to-place, most disadvantaged youth, the range of policies covered is broader than in earlier studies on the same topic, including various social benefits and in-kind services targeted at this group. The paper shows that NEET rates have not yet recovered from the crisis. There are large differences in youth unemployment and inactivity across countries, and these differences were further exacerbated by the recession. Reducing NEET rates is a great challenge for governments, as youth who remain jobless for long periods typically come from more disadvantaged backgrounds, have low levels of educational attainment, and are in many cases inactive. There is substantial evidence, however, that even the most disadvantaged youth can benefit from a variety of targeted interventions, including for instance special education programmes and mentoring.
Cet article présente un aperçu de la situation des jeunes dans les pays de l'OCDE depuis le début de la crise financière, en se concentrant principalement sur les conditions de vie et les caractéristiques des jeunes ni en emploi, ni scolarisés, ni en formation (les ‘NEETs’). Il fournit également des données sur la disponibilité, la couverture et l'efficacité des prestations sociales, et fait une synthèse de l'efficacité des interventions qui visent à améliorer la situation sociale, l'éducation et l'emploi des jeunes les plus défavorisés. Il se concentre sur les jeunes les plus défavorisés et les plus difficiles à placer. À ce titre, l'éventail des politiques visées est plus élargi que dans les études précédentes sur le même sujet, comprenant tout l’éventail des prestations sociales et un large panorama des interventions possibles, allant des services sociaux à l’emploi, en passant par l’éducation et la santé. Nous montrons que les taux de NEET n’ont pas encore retrouvé leurs niveaux d’avant la crise. Il existe cependant de grandes différences entre pays dans le chômage et l'inactivité des jeunes, qui ont été exacerbées par la récession. Réduire le taux de NEET est difficile pour les gouvernements. Les jeunes qui contribuent le plus au chômage et à l'inactivité restent sans emploi pendant de longues périodes et viennent généralement de milieux les plus défavorisés. Dans de nombreux cas ils ne recherchent pas d’emploi et ont des niveaux d'éducation faibles ou pas d’éducation du tout. Il existe pourtant des preuves que ces jeunes peuvent bénéficier d’un large éventail d'interventions ciblées, allant de programmes d'éducation spécialisée au mentorat. Classification-JEL: I25; I28; J13; J15; J21; J24; J38 Creation-Date: 2015-02-26 Number: 164 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:164-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kristine Langenbucher Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: How demanding are eligibility criteria for unemployment benefits, quantitative indicators for OECD and EU countries Abstract: Eligibility criteria for unemployment benefits, which require recipients to actively look for work, take up suitable job offers or take part in active labour market programmes (ALMPs), or risk benefit sanctions, can play an important role in offsetting the negative impact of generous unemployment benefits on employment incentives. This paper presents information on the strictness of eligibility criteria for unemployment benefits for 40 OECD and/or EU member countries. It covers availability requirements during ALMPs and suitable work criteria, job search requirements and monitoring of independent job search effort, and sanctions for voluntary unemployment, refusing a job offer or participation in active labour market measures. These qualitative data are then used to compile a composite indicator of the strictness of eligibility criteria and some comparisons are made with the results of a similar exercise by the OECD in 2011. This indicator complements existing cross-country indicators relating to unemployment benefits, such as net replacement rate data from the OECD Taxes and Benefits Database and data on ALMP expenditure compiled annually by Eurostat and the OECD. Classification-JEL: J08; J65; J68 Creation-Date: 2015-07-01 Number: 166 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:166-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Guillermo Montt Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The causes and consequences of field-of-study mismatch: An analysis using PIAAC Abstract: Field-of-study mismatch occurs when workers educated in a particular field work in another. It is conceptually distinct from qualifications or skills mismatch, although a part of qualifications and skills mismatch results from graduates from a particular field having to downgrade to find work in another field. Some studies have identified labour market dynamics related to field-of-study mismatch, but few (if any) have sought to directly understand the interplay between labour supply factors (the types of skills brought to the workplace) and the labour demand factors (the types of skills demanded by employers) in field-of-study mismatch. Using data from the Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies’ Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), this paper shows that although students may choose to specialise in a particular field, it is not solely up to them to actually work in that field. In accordance with assignment theories, both the degree of saturation of a particular field in the labour market and the level of generic skills of a particular field predict the occurrence of field-of-study mismatch, highlighting that mismatch is the result of both labour supply- and demand-side factors. The paper then evaluates the costs to individuals – in terms of wages, risk of being out of work and job satisfaction. Findings suggest that the costs of field-of-study mismatch may only be high in terms of individual earnings when it is associated to qualification mismatch. For economies, field-of-study mismatch, when associated with qualifications mismatch, can amount to important costs, meriting the attention of policy makers to better aligning course places to skill needs or by encouraging skill transferability across fields.
L’inadéquation du domaine d’études se produit lorsque des travailleurs, formés dans un domaine particulier, travaillent dans un autre domaine. Conceptuellement, elle se distingue de l’inadéquation des compétences ou des qualifications, même si, une part de ces dernières se produit lorsque les diplômés d’un domaine d’étude doivent se déclasser pour trouver un emploi dans un autre domaine. Certaines études ont montré que la dynamique du marché du travail est liée à l’inadéquation du domaine d’études, mais peu (ou pas) ont directement tenté de comprendre la relation entre les facteurs d’offre de travail (les types de compétences amenées par les travailleurs sur le lieu de travail) et les facteurs de demande de travail (les types de compétences demandées par les employeurs), dans l’inadéquation du domaine d’études. En utilisant des données du Programme pour l’Évaluation Internationale des Compétences des Adultes (PIAAC), ce document montre que même si les étudiants ont la possibilité de choisir de se spécialiser dans un domaine particulier, ils ne sont pas seuls responsables de pouvoir effectivement travailler dans ce domaine. Conformément aux théories sur les choix d’orientation, tant le degré de saturation d’un domaine sur le marché du travail que le degré de compétences génériques du domaine d’études, prédisent l’apparition d’une inadéquation du domaine d’études, soulignant que cette dernière est le résultat de facteurs liés à la fois à l’offre et à la demande de travail. Le document évalue ensuite les coûts, pour les individus, en termes de salaires, de risque d’être sans travail et de satisfaction au travail. Les résultats suggèrent que les coûts de l’inadéquation du domaine d’études peuvent être élevés au niveau individuel que lorsqu’elle est associée à l’inadéquation des qualifications. Pour les économies, l’inadéquation du domaine d’études, quand elle est associée à l’inadéquation des qualifications, peut signifier des coûts importants, méritant l’attention des décideurs politiques en ajustant mieux les places vacantes dans les programmes d’études aux besoins de compétences, ou en encourageant les transferts de compétences. Creation-Date: 2015-07-01 Number: 167 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:167-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Giorgio Brunello Author-Name: Lorenzo Rocco Title: The effects of vocational education on adult skills and wages: What can we learn from PIAAC? Abstract: In this report we investigate the effects of vocational education and training (VET) on adult skills and labour market outcomes by using the PIAAC survey. Data comparability across countries, the breath of countries involved, and the almost unique presence of information on assessed skills, training, earnings and employment makes this survey especially valuable to study the different facets of VET as compared to more academic education. Classification-JEL: I21; I26; I28; J01; J08; J24 Keywords: gender Creation-Date: 2015-07-29 Number: 168 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:168-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Working and learning: A diversity of patterns Abstract: The combination of work and study has been hailed as crucial to ensure that youth develop the skills required on the labour market so that transitions from school to work are shorter and smoother. This paper fills an important gap in availability of internationally-comparable data. Using the 2012 Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), it draws a comprehensive picture of work and study in 23 countries/regions. Crucially, it decomposes the total share of working students by the context in which they work (VET, apprenticeships or private arrangements) and assesses the link between field of study and students’ work. The paper also assesses how the skills of students are used in the workplace compared to other workers and identifies the socio-demographic factors and the labour market institutions that increase the likelihood of work and study. Finally, while it is not possible to examine the relationship between work and study and future labour market outcomes at the individual level, some aggregate correlations are unveiled.
La plupart des études sur le chômage des jeunes attribuent une importance clé au cumul emploi/études pour raccourcir et améliorer les transitions de l’école à l’emploi et cela sur la base du fait qu’il permet aux jeunes d’acquérir les compétences demandées sur le marché du travail. Ce papier remplit le manque de données comparables à niveau international sur ce sujet. Grâce à l’Enquête sur les Compétences des Adultes (PIAAC), il permet d’évaluer l’étendue du cumul emploi/études dans 23 pays ou régions. Plus particulièrement, il permet d’identifier ces composantes principales (la formation professionnelle en alternance, l’apprentissage ou le travail des étudiants en dehors de ces programmes) et d’évaluer le lien entre le domaine d’étude et la nature du travail étudiant. Le papier étudie aussi comment les compétences des étudiants travailleurs sont utilisées aux seins des entreprises par rapport à celles des autres travailleurs et identifie les caractéristiques sociodémographiques ainsi que les institutions du marché du travail qui sont associées avec une probabilité accrue de cumul emploi/études. Pour finir, même s’il n’est pas possible d’examiner la relation entre le statut en termes de cumul emploi/études de chaque individu et sa réussite sur le marché du travail une fois les études terminées, le papier décèle quelques relations agrégées entre l’incidence du cumul emploi/études et le taux de chômage des jeunes sortis du système scolaire Classification-JEL: I21; J01; J08; J22; J24 Creation-Date: 2015-08-18 Number: 169 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:169-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Justine Knebelmann Author-Workplace-Name: International Growth Centre Author-Name: Christopher Prinz Title: The Impact of Depression on Employment of Older Workers in Europe Abstract: According to the World Health Organization, depression is the highest ranking cause of disease in middle- and high income countries; it costs Europe around EUR 118 billion a year, mostly through lost productivity on the labour market, i.e. labour supply loss, sickness absence, and poor performance at the workplace. Using data from waves 1, 2 and 4 of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), this paper seeks to assess the magnitude of the impact of depression on labour market outcomes of older workers, a population sub-group whose participation in the labour market is ever more crucial in view of rapid population ageing. For each of the studied outcomes, analyses show a substantial impact of depression, measured with the European Depression Scale. Using different methods to address endogeneity this paper finds that depression decreases the probability of being employed by 22 to 51 percentage points among the 50 to 64 year old age group. Older workers with the most symptoms are more than twice as likely as others to exit employment before retirement age. Finally, depression increases annual sickness absence duration by 7.2 days on average. These figures show the necessity for national and firm-level employment policies and programmes targeting the 50 and over population to include prevention of depression, increased awareness of depression and adequate medical support. Classification-JEL: C23; C31; I10; J22; J26 Creation-Date: 2016-12-21 Number: 170 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:170-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nora Lustig Author-Workplace-Name: Tulane University Title: Fiscal Redistribution In Middle Income Countries: Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, Peru and South Africa Abstract: This paper examines the redistributive impact of fiscal policy for Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, Peru and South Africa using comparable fiscal incidence analysis with data from around 2010. The largest redistributive effect is in South Africa and the smallest in Indonesia. Success in fiscal redistribution is driven primarily by redistributive effort (share of social spending to GDP in each country) and the extent to which transfers/subsidies are targeted to the poor and direct taxes targeted to the rich. While fiscal policy always reduces inequality, this is not the case with poverty. Fiscal policy increases poverty in Brazil and Colombia (over and above market income poverty) due to high consumption taxes on basic goods. The marginal contribution of direct taxes, direct transfers and in-kind transfers is always equalizing. The marginal effect of net indirect taxes is unequalizing in Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia and South Africa. Total spending on education is pro-poor except for Indonesia, where it is neutral in absolute terms. Health spending is pro-poor in Brazil, Chile, Colombia and South Africa, roughly neutral in absolute terms in Mexico, and not pro-poor in Indonesia and Peru.
Ce document de travail examine l’impact redistributif des politiques budgétaires au Brésil, au Chili, en Colombie, en Indonésie, au Mexique, au Pérou et en Afrique du Sud en utilisant la technique d’analyse d’incidence sur des données aux alentours de l’année 2010. L’impact de la redistribution est le plus important en Afrique du Sud, et le plus faible en Indonésie. La performance de la redistribution est principalement déterminée par l’effort redistributif (part de la dépense sociale dans le PIB de chaque pays) et par la mesure dans laquelle les taxes et transferts sont ciblés vers les plus pauvres et les impôts directs vers les plus riches. Les politiques budgétaires réduisent systématiquement les inégalités, mais pas la pauvreté. La dépense publique augmente la pauvreté au Brésil, en Colombie (au-delà même de la pauvreté mesurée avant redistribution) à cause de la forte taxation des biens élémentaires. L‘impact marginal des taxes directes, des transferts directs et des transferts en nature a toujours un impact progressif. L’impact marginal des taxes indirectes est régressif au Brésil, en Colombie, en Indonésie et en Afrique du Sud. Les dépenses totales d’éducation sont plus favorables aux pauvres, sauf en Indonésie, où elles sont neutres en termes absolus. Les dépenses de santé sont plus favorables aux pauvres au Brésil, au Chili, en Colombie et en Afrique du Sud, globalement neutres en termes absolus et favorables aux pauvres en Indonésie et au Pérou. Classification-JEL: D31; H22; I3 Keywords: developing countries, inequality, social spending Creation-Date: 2015-10-26 Number: 171 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:171-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Chris Clarke Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Valérie Frey Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Paid Parental Leave: Lessons from OECD Countries and Selected U.S. States Abstract: The United States is at a crossroads in its policies towards the family and gender equality. Currently America provides basic support for children, fathers, and mothers in the form of unpaid parental leave, child-related tax breaks, and limited public childcare. Alternatively, the United States’ OECD peers empower families through paid parental leave and comprehensive investments in infants and children. The potential gains from strengthening these policies are enormous. Paid parental leave and subsidised childcare help get and keep more women in the workforce, contribute to economic growth, offer cognitive and health benefits to children, and extend choice for parents in finding their preferred work-life strategy. Indeed, the United States has been falling behind the rest of the OECD in many social and economic indicators by not adequately investing in children, fathers and mothers.
Les États-Unis se trouvent à la croisée des chemins dans le domaine des politiques familiales et de promotion de l’égalité hommes-femmes. À l’heure actuelle, les enfants américains et leurs parents ne bénéficient que d’une aide minimum, qui comprend un congé parental non rémunéré, des allégements fiscaux liés aux enfants et une offre restreinte de services publics d’accueil des jeunes enfants. A contrario, les pairs des États-Unis au sein de l'OCDE offrent aux parents et aux familles la possibilité de prendre un congé parental rémunéré et investissent massivement dans les politiques de l’enfance. Des politiques plus généreuses dans ces domaines pourraient générer des bénéfices considérables. Le congé parental rémunéré et les services subventionnés de garde d’enfants contribuent à augmenter le nombre de femmes qui rejoignent le marché du travail ou qui y restent, participent à la croissance économique, ont des effets bénéfiques sur les compétences cognitives et la santé des enfants, et offrent aux parents un éventail de choix plus large afin de concilier au mieux vie professionnelle et vie privée. Les États-Unis accusent en effet du retard par rapport aux autres pays de l'OCDE à l’aune de nombreux indicateurs sociaux et économiques, car ils n’ont pas suffisamment investi dans le bien-être des enfants et des parents. Classification-JEL: H53; I38; J13; J21 Keywords: children, employment, OECD countries, parental leave, United States, Women, work Creation-Date: 2015-11-19 Number: 172 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:172-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Angelica Salvi del Pero Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Housing policy in Chile: A case study on two housing programmes for low-income households Abstract: Chile has made considerable progress in promoting access to affordable good-quality housing over the past two decades. The proportion of households that have no housing or that live in sub-standard housing has fallen from 23% in 1992 to 10% in 2011 (Ministerio Desarrollo Social 2013). Nevertheless, the incidence of poor quality housing and overcrowding is still high by international standards and residential segregation continues to be significant in Chile’s urban areas. Compared to other OECD countries, Chile is also characterised by small rental housing sector, which accounts for 18% of the housing stock; on average this tenure comprises 32% of the housing stock across OECD countries (Salvi Del Pero et al. 2015 forthcoming). After highlighting some of Chile’s key policy challenges in supporting access to quality and affordable housing (Chapter 1), this brief reviews two of Chile’s housing policy programmes. The first is a government subsidy to promote access to homeownership among low-income households; this programme – through various modifications – has been a central component of housing policy in Chile for over two decades. Chapter 2 discusses the characteristics of the programme, its objectives and the changes introduced to it in 2011; the further changes to the programme being discussed during the preparation of this brief – are instead not part of the study. The second policy reviewed in this report is a programme that introduced for the first time a subsidy to provide support for rental costs to young low and middle income households. Chapter 3 presents the main objectives and characteristics of this programme.
Le Chili a beaucoup mieux oeuvré, ces deux dernières décennies, en faveur de l’accès à des logements abordables et de qualité. La proportion de ménages dépourvus de logement ou très mal logés a chuté, passant de 23 % en 1992 à 10 % en 2011 (Ministerio Desarrollo Social, 2013). Toutefois, la prévalence de logements de piètre qualité et surpeuplés reste élevée à l’aune internationale, et la ségrégation résidentielle demeure significative dans les zones urbaines chiliennes. Par rapport à d’autres pays de l’OCDE, le Chili se caractérise également par un secteur locatif restreint englobant 18 % du stock de logements, contre en moyenne 32 % dans la zone OCDE (Salvi Del Pero et al., 2015, à paraître). Après avoir mis en lumière certains des principaux enjeux de l’action publique du Chili en faveur de l’accès à des logements abordables et de qualité (chapitre 1), la présente synthèse passe en revue deux programmes de logement du pays. Le premier consiste pour le gouvernement à subventionner l’accession des ménages à faible revenu à la propriété de leur logement ; modifié à plusieurs reprises, ce programme est une composante centrale de la politique du logement chilienne depuis plus de deux décennies. Le chapitre 2 examine les caractéristiques du programme, ainsi que ses objectifs et les modifications qui lui ont été apportées en 2011 ; les autres changements, intervenus postérieurement, qui ont été examinés durant la préparation de cette synthèse ne font en revanche pas partie de l’étude. Le deuxième train de mesures examiné dans le présent rapport est un programme qui a consisté à mettre en place, pour la première fois, une subvention locative à l’intention des jeunes ménages à revenu faible ou moyen. Le chapitre 3 présente les objectifs et les caractéristiques de ce programme. Classification-JEL: H24; I38; R21; R31 Keywords: Chile, Chili, housing, Housing affordability, housing supply, public housing Creation-Date: 2016-03-03 Number: 173 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:173-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sandrine Cazes Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Anne Saint-Martin Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Measuring and Assessing Job Quality: The OECD Job Quality Framework Abstract: This paper presents the OECD Framework for Measuring and Assessing Job Quality developed jointly by the Employment, Labour and Social Affairs Directorate and the Statistics Directorate of the OECD as part of a broader EU-supported project1 and describes its links to the broader well-being agenda pursued by the OECD. The approach to job quality taken is explicitly multi-dimensional and defined in terms of earnings quality, labour market security and quality of working environment. The paper then discusses measurement choices and indicators selected for each of the three dimensions of job quality, highlighting the main limitations on the data front. Finally, the paper documents job quality across OECD and non OECD countries as well as across socio-economic groups for which data are available.
Ce document présente le nouveau cadre de mesure et d’évaluation de la qualité de l’emploi, développé conjointement par la Direction de l’Emploi, du Travail et des Affaires Sociales et la Direction des Statistiques de l’OCDE. Ce travail s’inscrit dans un projet plus large sur la qualité de l’emploi, financé par l’Union Européenne. La qualité de l’emploi y est décrite en relation avec l’agenda plus global de l’OCDE sur le bien-être. L’approche choisie pour définir la qualité de l’emploi est explicitement multidimensionnelle et retient la qualité des revenus du travail, la sécurité sur le marché du travail et la qualité de l’environnement professionnel comme les trois dimensions fondamentales. Le papier discute ensuite les choix méthodologiques et les indicateurs proposés dans le cadre de mesure, en en soulignant les possibles limites. Enfin, le papier présente un portrait statistique de la qualité de l’emploi, entre pays (OCDE et non OCDE) mais aussi par groupes sociodémographiques. Classification-JEL: I31; J28; J65; J81 Creation-Date: 2015-12-18 Number: 174 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:174-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Bálint Menyhért Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Measuring Labour Market Security and Assessing its Implications for Individual Well-Being Abstract: This paper provides a comprehensive discussion of the labour market security dimension of the OECD’s job quality framework, thereby complementing the analysis in Chapter 3 of the OECD Employment Outlook 2014 and Chapter 5 of the OECD Employment Outlook 2015. It makes three main contributions. First, it provides an in-depth discussion of the definition and measurement of labour market security. and discusses in detail the various methodological issues surrounding its measurement. Second, it offers a comprehensive statistical portrait of labour market security across countries, socio-economic groups and over time. Third, it investigates the statistical relationship between labour market insecurity and subjective measures of well-being. Importantly, we find that the risk of unemployment has a detrimental effect on the well-being of employed workers, and that this reflects to an important extent the risk of staying unemployed for a prolonged period of time. Policymakers should therefore focus not only on reducing the level of unemployment, but also on speeding up unemployment turnover at a given level of unemployment. Unemployment insurance also mitigates the adverse effect of unemployment risk, and particularly that of long-term unemployment, on the well-being of the employed.
Ce papier propose une discussion complète autour de la sécurité du marché de travail, une des dimensions du nouveau cadre pour la qualité d’emploi de l’OCDE. Il complète ainsi l’analyse du Chapitre 3 de Perspectives de l’emploi de l’OCDE 2014 et celle du Chapitre 5 de Perspectives de l’emploi de l’OCDE 2015. Notre papier apporte trois contributions principales. Premièrement, il propose une discussion approfondie de la définition et la mesure de la sécurité sur le marché du travail. Deuxièmement, il donne un portrait statistique complet de la sécurité sur le marché du travail dans différents pays, groupes sociodémographiques ainsi qu’au fil du temps. Troisièmement, il étudie la relation statistique entre la sécurité sur le marché du travail et des mesures subjectives de bien-être. Un des résultats les plus importants est que le risque de chômage a des effets négatifs sur le bien-être des personnes employées, ce qui reflète à un degré important le risque de rester au chômage pour une période prolongée. Les décideurs politiques devraient donc, non seulement se concentrer sur la réduction du niveau de chômage, mais aussi sur l’accélération de la rotation des chômeurs à tout niveau de chômage. L’assurance chômage quant à elle attenue aussi les effets négatifs du chômage, et surtout du chômage de longue durée. Classification-JEL: I31; J08; J64; J65 Creation-Date: 2016-01-22 Number: 175 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:175-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Angelica Salvi del Pero Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Valeria Ferraro Author-Name: Valérie Frey Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Policies to promote access to good-quality affordable housing in OECD countries Abstract: This paper develops OECD information on housing policies and the degree to which OECD countries pursue social policy objectives them. Data collected by the OECD shows that most OECD countries provide considerable support to promote access to homeownership: reported spending can amount up to 2.3% of GDP. Most OECD countries also support the provision of social rental housing, but public support for social rental housing is declining in many countries and the private rental sector is playing an increasingly important role in promoting access to affordable housing. In almost all OECD countries housing support is also delivered through means-tested housing allowances, for which reporting countries spend between 0.6 and 1.8% of GDP. The available data do not allow for a comprehensive cross-country comparison of the housing policy mix but, where available, data suggest that owner-occupied housing receives significant support compared to other tenures.Access to housing and housing quality also remain pressing concerns in many OECD countries. Significant numbers of people are homeless: while statistics are difficult to compare, most OECD countries report that 1 to 8 people in every thousand lack regular access to housing. In addition, many households live in low-quality dwellings: 15% of low-income households live in overcrowded dwellings and 14% do not have access to an indoor flushing toilet. Neighbourhood crime and pollution are also problematic for many households throughout the OECD. Classification-JEL: H24; I38; R21; R31 Keywords: Homeownership subsidies, Housing affordability, Housing need, housing policies, Private rental housing subsidies, Social housing subsidies, Spatial segregation Creation-Date: 2016-02-26 Number: 176 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:176-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Garnero Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Sébastien Martin Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: More unequal, but more mobile?: Earnings inequality and mobility in OECD countries Abstract: This paper provides comprehensive cross-country evidence on the relationship between earnings inequality and intra-generational mobility by simulating individual earnings and employment trajectories in the long-term using short panel data for 24 OECD countries. On average across countries, about 25% of earnings inequality in a given year evens out over the life cycle as a result of mobility. Moreover, mobility is not systematically higher in countries with more earnings inequality in general. However, a positive and statistically significant relationship is found only in the bottom of the distribution. This reflects the role of mobility between employment and unemployment and not that of mobility up and down the earnings ladder.
Ce document fournit une analyse approfondie de la relation entre l’inégalité des revenus d’activité et la mobilité intra-générationnelle en simulant les trajectoires professionnelles à l’aide de données de panel sur une courte période pour 24 pays de l’OCDE. En moyenne et pour l’ensemble des pays, environ 25% de l'inégalité des revenus observée une année donnée s’égalise au cours du cycle de vie du fait de la mobilité. De plus, la mobilité n’est pas systématiquement plus élevée dans les pays généralement plus inégalitaires en termes de revenus. Toutefois, on observe une relation positive et statistiquement significative entre inégalité et mobilité dans la partie inférieure de la distribution. Cela reflète le rôle de la mobilité entre emploi et chômage, et non celui de la mobilité ascendante et descendante sur l'échelle des salaires. Classification-JEL: E24; J30; J62; O57 Keywords: earnings-experience profiles, intra-generational mobility, life-time inequality, simulation Creation-Date: 2016-02-26 Number: 177 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:177-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sankar Ramasamy Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Role of Employers and Employer Engagement in Labour Migration from Third Countries to the EU Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895). A previous version of this paper DELSA/ELSA/MI(2015)8 was presented and discussed at the OECD working party on migration in June 2015. The paper examines the ways in which employers are protagonists in international labour migration, and what can be done to ensure that they are partners in increasing European attractiveness for internationally mobile talent. Facilitating movement of Intra-Corporate Transfer (ICT) workers in multinational companies, improving the ability of SMEs to access foreign workers, as well as attracting entrepreneurs and investors in the EU single market, are the three principal channels examined in the report. The paper provides recommendations for policy development in these three areas. Classification-JEL: F21; F22; J61 Creation-Date: 2016-06-11 Number: 178 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:178-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Emily Farchy Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Impact of Intra-EU Mobility on Immigration by Third-Country Foreign Workers Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper (DELSA/ELSA/MI(2015)10) was presented and discussed at the OECD working party on migration in June 2015 This paper examines the impact of the free flow of migrants within the EU on the prospects of labour migrants from third countries - the extent to which free movement migrants and third country migrants are substitutes or complements on the labour market. The first section of this paper looks at the recent trends in migration to the European Union, with a particular focus on trends in the ‘big five’ recipient countries. The analysis is supplemented by the use of micro data from the EU Labour Force Survey, to examine the extent to which the socio-economic and job characteristics suggest that EU migrants and third country migrants provide a similar labour input. Aggregate migrant flows, however, are driven by both supply and demand factors; a comparison of aggregate trends is therefore insufficient to disentangle the disparate drivers of these trends. A booming economy, for example, will attract labour migrants from both EU and third countries, yet the positive relation between these flows cannot be attributed to a complementarity between these labour inputs but rather to the demand side factors that drive them both. To overcome this endogeneity the second section of this paper utilizes the natural experiment of EU enlargement to isolate the impact of the increased supply of free movement migrants on third country migrant populations. Abstracting in this manner from the economic factors that have played such an important role in determining labour demand in recent years the empirical analysis of this paper identifies a negative impact on the arrivals of third country migrants when labour supply from new EU migrants increases. Furthermore, the lack of identifiable impact on the employment rate of third country migrants is dependent on assumptions regarding the counterfactual employment outcomes of these displaced third country migrants. Classification-JEL: F22; J61; R23 Creation-Date: 2016-06-24 Number: 179 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:179-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jonathan Chaloff Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Impact of EU Directives on the labour migration framework in EU countries Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895). This paper is a revised version of an earlier paper (DELSA/ELSA/MI(2015)3) presented and discussed at the OECD Working Party on Migration in June 2015. The paper examines the mechanisms for labour migration management across individual European countries. Distinguishing between high- and low-skilled workers, it investigates the policies aiming at attracting and retaining qualified migrants. It finds that in EU countries there are several different forms of barriers to labour migration, each of which is affected differently by EU legislation. It then specifically focuses on the Student, Researchers and EU Blue Card Directives, studying their effects on the real policy framework in the EU countries affected, in terms of approach. It finds that the first two directives have had a modest impact on the legislative framework, which was largely aligned with the Directive prior to transposition in many cases. The Blue Card scheme is compared in detail with national schemes, in terms of the key parameters of the Directive (criteria, processing standards, benefits, etc.). The paper examines the use of a salary threshold and its different effect according to the country in which it is applied. The paper concludes by examining the impact of these directives on recruitment opportunities, attractiveness and levelling the playing field among EU countries. It explores some options for adjusting the policies in the future. Classification-JEL: F22; F53; F55; K37 Creation-Date: 2016-06-11 Number: 180 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:180-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Tommaso Colussi Author-Workplace-Name: Institute for the Study of Labor Title: The Impact of the Implementation of Council Directives on Labour Migration Flows from Third Countries to EU Countries Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper (DELSA/ELSA/MI(2015)4) was presented and discussed at the OECD Working Party on Migration in June 2015. The paper assesses the impact of three European Directives – Student Directive, Researcher Directive and the Blue Card Directive – on migration flows from third countries to the EU. Using a difference-in-difference empirical strategy and data from the EU-LFS and Eurostat database on work permits to non-EU workers, it estimates the effect of each Directive on the inflow of targeted third country nationals. Overall, the econometric analysis does not provide evidence of a direct impact of the implementation of either of the Directives on the inflow of targeted groups. Most member states did experience an increase in the inflow of non-EU high skilled workers after the adoption of the Blue Card Directive; however, this increase can be almost entirely explained by positive pre-existing trends in the inflow of this type of immigrants. Similarly, despite the increase in the number of permits issued to students and researchers from third countries in Europe, difference-in-differences estimates do not provide evidence of a direct effect of the implementation of the Student and Researcher Directive on changes in this type of inflows. The absence of a measurable impact of the three Directives analysed may be due to delayed effects of policy changes, which take time to filter into perception and thus affect immigrant inflows to Europe. Classification-JEL: F22; J61; K37; R23 Creation-Date: 2016-06-24 Number: 181 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:181-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sophie Robin-Olivier Author-Workplace-Name: University of Paris I Title: The Community Preference Principle in Labour Migration Policy in the European Union Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper was presented and discussed at the OECD Working Party on Migration in June 2015.The paper investigates the notion of the “community preference” which in filling job posts gives a priority to EU-nationals over third-country nationals. Analysing the impact of the principle on the European labour migration policy, the report presents a brief history of the notion, and discusses how it is referred to in EU labour migration policy documents. It also examines the challenges that the principle is facing as the EU immigration policy develops, tending to give increasing rights to third-country nationals. Classification-JEL: F22; K31; K37; N44 Creation-Date: 2016-06-10 Number: 182 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:182-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Corinne Balleix Author-Workplace-Name: Sciences Po, Paris Title: Strengthening Co-operation with Countries of Origin Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper was presented and discussed at the OECD Working Party on Migration in June 2015.The paper presents the main instruments for co-operation with third countries in the area of labour immigration – policy instruments constituted by the mobility partnerships, financial instruments, as well as legal instruments. For each of them, the study examines the reference sources underpinning the activity, the manner in which labour immigration is organised, and the ways of promoting ethical recruitment. The paper then draws up a frame of reference on these instruments, followed by specific references to the labour immigration policies of certain Member States, and certain third countries, serving to illustrate the arguments. Classification-JEL: F22; F53; F55; N44 Creation-Date: 2016-06-10 Number: 183 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:183-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anda David Author-Workplace-Name: University of Paris Sud Author-Name: Jean-Noël Senne Author-Workplace-Name: University of Paris Dauphine Title: A descriptive analysis of immigration to and emigration from the EU: Where does the EU stand within OECD? Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper was presented and discussed at the OECD Working Party on Migration in June 2015. The paper examines immigration to, and emigration from, the European Union, and compares them with migrant inflows and outflows to other OECD destinations. It investigates how the migrants are distributed in terms of gender, age, education and labour force status, depending on their country of origin as well as of destination. Drawing upon the Database on Immigrants in the OECD countries (DIOC), changes in migration rates and stock are analysed over time, focusing on whether the EU is facing a net gain or loss of skills. Classification-JEL: F22; J11; N34 Creation-Date: 2016-06-24 Number: 184 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:184-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Peo Hansen Author-Workplace-Name: University of Linköping Title: The European Union's External Labour Migration Policy; Rationale, Objectives, Approaches and Results, 1999-2014 Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper (DELSA/ELSA/MI(2015)2) was presented and discussed at the OECD Working Party on Migration in June 2015. This paper presents an overview and analysis of the policy development at the EU level regarding external labour migration (ELM). It reviews the shift in ELM policy at the EU level by examining documents and debates. It looks at the treatment of ELM, setting out from the Amsterdam Treaty and then follows the development up to the present, paying close attention to the evolving rational for increasing ELM. The difference between the horizontal approach and the sectoral approach is explained. The major ELM Directives under the sectoral approach are presented and discussed in terms of how they were negotiated and how they fit into the overall ELM policy strategy. The document concludes by identifying current political challenges for expanding the EU approach beyond its present form. Classification-JEL: F22; K37; N44 Creation-Date: 2016-06-10 Number: 185 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:185-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Reinhard Weisser Author-Workplace-Name: Leibniz Universität Hannover Title: Internationally mobile students and their post-graduation migratory behaviour: An analysis of determinants of student mobility and retention rates in the EU Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper was presented and discussed at the OECD Working Party on Migration in June 2015.The paper investigates the preferences and post-graduation mobility behaviour of international students, focusing on how the EU could succeed in attracting and keeping highly educated talent from across the globe. Providing their skills to European labour markets, graduates from outside the EU have a potential to enrich the supply of high-skilled labour. Seen as the 28 EU countries still constitute the most attractive destination area for studying abroad, the paper examines different calculation methods in order to generate stay rates for over 170 countries of origin. Empirical results indicate that for the EU as a whole, aggregate stay rates from stayers from all non-EU source countries lie within a range of 16.4% and 29.1%. They are also typically very low among students from other OECD countries, and much higher for students from less developed or politically less stable countries. The paper concludes by recommending a catalogue of measures to boost the EU's attractiveness, and to increase stay rates. Proposed policy measures draw on a smooth labour market integration of international graduates, as well as on cultivating strong points of the European countries, such as: political stability and participation possibilities, reliable institutions and governance structure, as well as an innovative and competitive environment. Classification-JEL: F22; I23 Creation-Date: 2016-06-24 Number: 186 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:186-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Friedrich Poeschel Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Raising the mobility of third-country nationals in the EU. Effects from naturalisation and long-term resident status Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper (DELSA/ELSA/MI(2015)5) was presented and discussed at the OECD working party on migration in June 2015. The functioning of labour markets in the European Union can benefit if third-country nationals become more mobile between EU member states. Using micro data from the EU Labour Force Survey, this paper measures their mobility and investigates whether it is raised by naturalisation or long-term resident status. While third-country nationals are overall less mobile than EU citizens, tertiary-educated persons appear equally mobile in both groups. Raising the mobility of all third-country nationals to the level of EU citizens would add at least 25 000 mobile persons. Causal effects on mobility from long-term resident status and naturalisation are identified through a difference-in-difference approach. Results suggest that long-term resident status increases the mobility of third-country nationals by 2%-6%. To avoid selection bias in the results for naturalisation, this paper draws on a natural experiment: following the accession of Central and Eastern European countries to the EU, all their citizens indiscriminately obtained the rights of EU citizens. The evidence suggests that those who were already living in other EU countries became more mobile as a result. These findings highlight that intra-EU mobility of third-country nationals depends on their rights to reside and work in other EU countries. Classification-JEL: F22; J61; K37 Creation-Date: 2016-06-10 Number: 187 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:187-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Flore Gubert Author-Workplace-Name: Paris School of Economics Author-Name: Jean-Noël Senne Author-Workplace-Name: University of Paris Dauphine Title: Is the European Union attractive for potential migrants?: An investigation of migration intentions across the world Abstract: This paper is part of the joint project between the Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission and the OECD’s Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs on “Review of Labour Migration Policy in Europe”. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Grant: HOME/2013/EIFX/CA/002 / 30-CE-0615920/00-38 (DI130895) A previous version of this paper was presented and discussed at the OECD Working Party on Migration in June 2015. The paper investigates the main likely drivers of migration towards the EU. It encompasses a literature review on the determinants of potential and actual migration, followed by an illustrative empirical investigation of worldwide migration intentions – focused on intentions to move permanently in a restricted time span, based on the Gallup surveys on the opinions and aspirations of people around the globe. The paper then continues with a descriptive analysis of migration intentions using both aggregated figures and figures disaggregated by region or country of destination and region or country of origin. It then investigates if individuals intending to move to European countries differ from those intending to move elsewhere using basic individual characteristics such as sex, age, education, and marital and employment status. When feasible, it compares the findings with the profile of recent migrants residing in OECD countries derived from the Database on Immigrants in OECD and non-OECD Countries. Classification-JEL: F22; O15 Creation-Date: 2016-06-10 Number: 188 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:188-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Melanie Arntz Author-Workplace-Name: Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung Author-Name: Terry Gregory Author-Workplace-Name: Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung Author-Name: Ulrich Zierahn Author-Workplace-Name: Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung Title: The Risk of Automation for Jobs in OECD Countries: A Comparative Analysis Abstract: In recent years, there has been a revival of concerns that automation and digitalisation might after all result in a jobless future. The debate has been fuelled by studies for the US and Europe arguing that a substantial share of jobs is at “risk of computerisation”. These studies follow an occupation-based approach proposed by Frey and Osborne (2013), i.e. they assume that whole occupations rather than single job-tasks are automated by technology. As we argue, this might lead to an overestimation of job automatibility, as occupations labelled as high-risk occupations often still contain a substantial share of tasks that are hard to automate. Our paper serves two purposes. Firstly, we estimate the job automatibility of jobs for 21 OECD countries based on a task-based approach. In contrast to other studies, we take into account the heterogeneity of workers’ tasks within occupations. Overall, we find that, on average across the 21 OECD countries, 9 % of jobs are automatable. The threat from technological advances thus seems much less pronounced compared to the occupation-based approach. We further find heterogeneities across OECD countries. For instance, while the share of automatable jobs is 6 % in Korea, the corresponding share is 12 % in Austria. Differences between countries may reflect general differences in workplace organisation, differences in previous investments into automation technologies as well as differences in the education of workers across countries.
Ces dernières années, les craintes que l’automatisation et la numérisation aboutissent finalement à un futur sans emploi se sont réveillées. Le débat a été alimenté par des études sur les États-Unis et l’Europe arguant qu’une grande partie des emplois étaient en « risque d’informatisation ». Ces études utilisent une méthode basée sur les professions proposée par Frey et Osborne (2013), c’est-à-dire qu’elles supposent que les professions dans leur ensemble et non les tâches isolées sont automatisées. Comme nous l’avançons, cette hypothèse peut mener à la surestimation de l’automatisation des emplois, puisque les professions dites à haut risque comprennent souvent une part substantielle de tâches difficiles à automatiser. Notre article a un double objectif. D’une part, nous estimons par une approche basée sur les tâches la possibilité d’automatiser les emplois pour 21 pays de l’OCDE. A la différence d’autres études, nous prenons en compte l’hétérogénéité des tâches au sein des professions. Globalement, nous estimons que 9 % des emplois sont automatisables en moyenne dans les 21 pays de l’OCDE. La menace générée par les avancées technologiques semble donc bien moindre que celle donnée par la méthode basée sur les professions. Nous trouvons également que les pays de l’OCDE sont hétérogènes en la matière. Par exemple, alors que la part des emplois automatisables représente 6 % en Corée, elle s’élève à 12 % en Autriche. Les différences entre pays peuvent être le reflet des diversités concernant l’organisation du lieu de travail en général, des différences dans les investissements faits auparavant dans les technologies d’automatisation ou encore des variations dans les niveaux d’éducation des travailleurs. Classification-JEL: J20; J23; J24 Creation-Date: 2016-05-14 Number: 189 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:189-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Céline Thévenot Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Faces of joblessness: Characterising employment barriers to inform policy Abstract: This paper proposes a novel method for identifying and visualising key employment obstacles that may prevent individuals from participating fully in the labour market. The approach is intended to complement existing sources of information that governments use when designing and implementing activation and employment-support policies. In particular, it aims to provide individual and household perspectives on employment problems, which may be missed when relying on common labour-force statistics or on administrative data, but which are relevant for targeting and tailoring support programmes and related policy interventions. A first step describes a series of employment-barrier indicators at the micro level, comprising three domains: work-related capabilities, financial incentives and employment opportunities. For each domain, a selected set of concrete employment barriers are quantified using the EU-SILC multi-purpose household survey. In a second step, a statistical clustering method (latent class analysis), is used to establish profiles and patterns of employment barriers among individuals with no or weak labour-market attachment. A detailed illustration for two countries (Estonia and Spain) shows that “short-hand” groupings that are often highlighted in the policy debate, such as “youth” or “older workers”, are in fact composed of multiple distinct sub-groups that face very different combinations of employment barriers and likely require different policy approaches. Results also indicate that individuals typically face two or more simultaneous employment obstacles suggesting that addressing one barrier at a time may not have the intended effect on employment levels. From a policy perspective, the results support calls for carefully sequencing activation and employment support measures, and for coordinating them across policy domains and institutions.
Cet article propose une nouvelle méthode pour identifier et visualiser les obstacles qui empêchent les individus éloignés de l’emploi de s’intégrer pleinement au marché du travail. L’approche se positionne en complément des sources d’information actuellement utilisées par les administrations pour la conception et la mise en oeuvre des politiques d’activation et de retour à l’emploi. Elle fournit une nouvelle perspective, au niveau des individus et des familles, sur les barrières à l’emploi qui ne sont pas capturées par les approches s’appuyant uniquement sur des données administratives et sur des statistiques sur le marché du travail, qui peut s’avérer très utile pour cibler et adapter des programmes sociaux. La première partie décrit, au niveau microéconomique, un ensemble de barrières à l’emploi couvrant trois domaines : les capacités individuelles (liées au travail), les incitations financières (à travailler) et les opportunités (de trouver un emploi). Pour chaque domaine, des barrières concrètes sont mesurées à l’aide de l’enquête EU-SILC. Ensuite, une méthode de classification, le modèle à Classes Latentes, est utilisée pour regrouper les individus dont l’attachement au marché du travail est inexistant ou très faible sur la base des barrières à l’emploi auxquelles ils font face. La méthode est illustrée par des résultats détaillés sur deux pays (Estonie et Espagne). Les résultats montrent que des groupes souvent identifiés dans le débat politique par des caractéristiques simples telles que « les jeunes » ou « les travailleurs âgés » sont en réalité composés de sous-groupes confrontés à des combinaisons de problèmes très différentes et nécessitant donc des programmes et interventions différents. Très fréquemment, les individus font face à plus d’une barrière à la fois. Ceci suggère que les politiques ciblant les problèmes de manière isolée pourraient avoir un effet sur l’emploi moindre qu’escompté. Placés dans une perspective de politique sociale, ces résultats invitent à soigneusement séquencer les programmes d’activation et de retour à l’emploi et à les coordonner entre les différentes institutions. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J21; J22; J68; J8; J82 Keywords: activation, active labour market programme, employment barrier, targeting, unemployment Creation-Date: 2016-06-15 Number: 192 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:192-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thor Berger Author-Workplace-Name: Oxford University Author-Name: Carl Benedikt Frey Author-Workplace-Name: Oxford University Title: Structural Transformation in the OECD: Digitalisation, Deindustrialisation and the Future of Work Abstract: In tandem with the diffusion of computer technologies, labour markets across the OECD have undergone rapid structural transformation. In this paper, we examine i) the impact of technological change on labour market outcomes since the computer revolution of the 1980s, and ii) recent developments in digital technology – including machine learning and robotics – and their potential impacts on the future of work. While it is evident that the composition of the workforce has shifted dramatically over recent decades, in part as a result of technological change, the impacts of digitalisation on the future of jobs are far from certain. On the one hand, accumulating anecdotal evidence shows that the potential scope of automation has expanded beyond routine work, making technological change potentially increasingly labour-saving: according to recent estimates 47 percent of US jobs are susceptible to automation over the forthcoming decades. On the other hand, there is evidence suggesting that digital technologies have not created many new jobs to replace old ones: an upper bound estimate is that around 0.5 percent of the US workforce is employed in digital industries that emerged throughout the 2000s. Nevertheless, at first approximation, there is no evidence to suggest that the computer revolution so far has reduced overall demand for jobs as technologically stagnant sectors of the economy – including health care, government and personal services – continue to create vast employment opportunities. Looking forward, however, we argue that as the potential scope of automation is expanding, many sectors that have been technologically stagnant in the past are likely to become technologically progressive in the future. While we should expect a future surge in productivity as a result, the question of whether gains from increases in productivity will be widely shared depends on policy responses.
Parallèlement à la diffusion des technologies numériques, les marchés du travail dans la zone OCDE ont subi une rapide transformation structurelle. Dans cet article, nous allons examiner i) l'impact des changements technologiques sur la performance du marché du travail depuis la révolution informatique des années 1980 et ii) les développements récents en matière de technologie numérique, y compris de l'apprentissage machine [machine learning] et de la robotique, ainsi que leurs impacts potentiels sur l'avenir du travail. Bien qu'il soit évident que la composition de la main-d'oeuvre a radicalement changé au cours des dernières décennies, en partie en raison de l'évolution technologique, les impacts de la numérisation sur l'avenir des emplois sont loin d'être certains. D'une part, il semblerait que la portée potentielle de l'automatisation s'est développée au-delà du travail de routine, rendant les changements technologiques potentiellement de plus en plus générateurs d'économies de main-d'oeuvre : au cours des prochaines décennies, selon des estimations récentes, 47 % des emplois américains pourront être automatisés. D'autre part, il existe des preuves suggérant que les technologies numériques n'ont pas créé beaucoup de nouveaux emplois pour remplacer les anciens et une estimation de la limite supérieure montre que la main-d'oeuvre des États-Unis n’est utilisée qu’à hauteur de 0,5 % dans les industries numériques qui ont émergé au cours des années 2000. Néanmoins, à ce jour, sur la base d’une première estimation, il n'y a aucune preuve que la révolution informatique ait réduit la demande globale pour les emplois dans les secteurs de l´économie qui sont technologiquement en stagnation, y compris dans les soins de santé, l’administration et les services aux personnes, qui continuent à engager du personnel et à créer de larges possibilités d'emploi. À l'avenir, cependant, nous estimons que la portée potentielle de l'automatisation est en pleine expansion, de nombreux secteurs qui ont été technologiquement stagnants par le passé sont susceptibles de progresser technologiquement à l'avenir. Par conséquent, nous devons nous attendre à une future hausse de la productivité. En revanche, la question de savoir si les gains provenant des augmentations de productivité seront amplement partagés dépend des réponses politiques. Classification-JEL: E24; J24; J62; O33 Keywords: digitalisation, future of work Creation-Date: 2016-09-30 Number: 193 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:193-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vahé Nafilyan Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Lost and found?: The cost of job loss in France Abstract: Combining the longitudinal dimension and the retrospective calendar of the French Labour Force Survey (2003-2011), we analyse the labour market transitions and outcomes of workers who were dismissed for economic reasons. This study analyses the re-employment patterns of displaced workers and their earnings losses, as is common in the literature, as well as the consequences of displacement for other aspects of job quality. Results suggest that the cost of involuntary job loss is important and goes beyond the fall in earnings. Workers who are made redundant face relatively long spells of non-employment before getting back to work and their new jobs tend to be of lower quality than their pre-displacement jobs along a number dimensions. Re-employed displaced workers suffer a monthly wage penalty of 15-20% and are, on average, nine times as likely to lose their job again as are workers who have not been made redundant. In addition, displaced workers are more likely to work part-time once re-employed, and to have fewer paid holidays and lower job authority than had they not been dismissed, though these differences tend to fall over time.
Dans cette étude, nous analysons les transitions et les performances sur le marché du travail des salariés qui ont été licenciés pour motif économique. Pour ce faire, nous utilisons la dimension longitudinale de l’Enquête Emploi en continu (2003-2011) combinée avec le calendrier rétrospectif. Nous examinons les perspectives de réemploi des employés licenciés pour motif économique ainsi que les conséquences de la perte d'emploi sur le salaire et d'autres indicateurs de la qualité de l'emploi. L'analyse montre que les conséquences de la perte involontaire d'emploi sont importantes et ne se limitent pas à une perte de revenus. Les employés licenciés pour motif économique non seulement les subissent une longue période de non-emploi, mais lorsqu’ils sont réemployés, la qualité de leur emploi généralement moindre. Une fois réemployés, ils subissent une perte de salaire d'environ 15-20% et ont neuf fois plus de chance de perdre à nouveau leur emploi que s'ils n'avaient pas été licencies. De plus, ils ont une plus forte probabilité de travailler à temps partiel, ont moins de vacances et de responsabilités, bien que la différence s'amenuise au cours du temps. Classification-JEL: J63; J64; J65; J68 Keywords: dismissed, displaced, job search, layoffs, Unemployment duration Creation-Date: 2016-08-26 Number: 194 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:194-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Iris Arends Author-Name: Christopher Prinz Author-Name: Femke Abma Title: Job quality, health and at-work productivity Abstract: Many countries invest considerable resources into promoting employment and the creation of jobs. At the same time, policies and institutions still pay relatively little attention to the quality of jobs although job quality has been found to be a major driver of employee wellbeing and may be an important factor for work productivity. Eventually, job quality might also influence labour supply choices and lead to higher employment. Providing robust evidence for the relationship between job quality and worker productivity could make a strong case for labour market policies directed at the improvement of job quality. This paper reviews existing evidence on the relationship between the quality of the work environment and individual at-work productivity, defined as reduced productivity while at work, and assesses the effect of health on this relationship.After screening 2 319 studies from various fields and disciplines, including economics and medicine, 48 studies are reviewed. Strong evidence is found for a negative relationship between job stress or job strain and individual at-work productivity and for a positive relationship between job rewards and productivity. Moderate evidence is found for a negative relationship between work-family conflict and at‑work productivity and for a positive relationship between fairness at work and social support from co-workers and productivity. Health influences the relationship between the quality of the work environment and productivity. Specifically, the relationship is stronger for people in good health.Job quality needs a more prominent place in labour market policy. More attention needs to be paid to workers’ perceptions of the quality of their work environment and how policies and practices at both the level of the worker and the work environment may influence this. Furthermore, as health‑related factors significantly influence the relationship between job quality and productivity, multidisciplinary approaches are needed to support at‑work productivity. Classification-JEL: I1; J2; J8 Creation-Date: 2017-06-22 Number: 195 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:195-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Christine Whitehead Author-Name: Peter Williams Title: Changes in the regulation and control of mortgage markets and access to owner-occupation among younger households Abstract: This paper looks at the issue of access to home ownership for younger people in OECD countries, from the point of view of changes in mortgage market regulation and control. It sets out the factors determining the demand for and supply of mortgages, particularly for first time buyers and it provides a review of the relevant literature and comparative data. The paper provides an overview of regulatory change since 2008 for over 20 countries. The paper also includes case studies of a subset of countries with mature mortgage markets that are known to face relevant issues and for which data are more readily available: Canada, Denmark, the United Kingdom and the United States. Classification-JEL: E5; G21; J3; R31; R38 Keywords: financial regulation, insecure employment, Mortgage markets, owner-occupation, younger households Creation-Date: 2017-07-18 Number: 196 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:196-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Koen Breemersch Author-Workplace-Name: University of Leuven Author-Name: Jože P. Damijan Author-Workplace-Name: University of Ljubljana Author-Name: Jozef Konings Author-Workplace-Name: Nazarbayev University Title: Labour Market Polarization in Advanced Countries: Impact of Global Value Chains, Technology, Import Competition from China and Labour Market Institutions Abstract: This paper explores the effects of offshoring, technology and Chinese import competition on labor market polarization in European countries. We find that polarization occurs mostly as a result of polarization within individual industries, while the reallocation of employment away from less polarized industries towards more highly polarized industries also contributed to a lesser extent. In manufacturing, within-industry polarization is mostly associated with technological change, but we also find some tentative evidence that Chinese import competition contributed as well. In other private industries outside of manufacturing, technological change and offshoring are the most relevant forces affecting within-industry polarization. The process of between-industry polarization is driven by widespread deindustrialization in developed countries. We find that Chinese import competition contributed to the decline of employment in the less polarized manufacturing industries. Differences in labor market institutions only explain a limited amount of cross-country variation in the association of polarization and the three forces we consider. Classification-JEL: E24; F14; F16; J23; J31; L60; O47 Creation-Date: 2017-10-31 Number: 197 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:197-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Marie-Anne Valfort Title: LGBTI in OECD Countries: A Review Abstract: This paper presents an overview of the socio-economic situation of lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, transgender and intersex people (LGBTI), primarily in OECD countries. After investigating the size of this population, the paper zooms in on attitudes toward LGBTI, LGBTI rights and perceived discrimination among LGBTI. It goes on to discuss the empirical strategies used to identify whether LGBTI fare worse than non-LGBTI and provides a systematic review of survey-based and experimental evidence on such an “LGBTI penalty” and its causes. This exploration points to substantial hurdles for LGBTI. In particular, (i) low legal recognition of same-sex couples hampers partnership stability and children’s well-being; (ii) LGBTI are bullied at school and suffer academically; (iii) LGBTI face hiring and wage discrimination; (iv) LGBTI show higher rates of physical and mental health problems, in particular due to social rejection. The paper concludes by reviewing anti-discrimination policies and defining critical avenues for future research. Classification-JEL: D10; I10; I20; I30; J12; J13; J15; J16; J70 Keywords: bisexual, discrimination, education, family, gay, health, housing market, intersex, labour market, lesbian, LGBTI, poverty, transgender, well-being Creation-Date: 2017-06-22 Number: 198 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:198-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Pedro S. Martins Author-Workplace-Name: Queen Mary University of London Author-Name: Jante Parlevliet Title: Collective bargaining through the magnifying glass: A comparison between the Netherlands and Portugal Classification-JEL: J5; P52 Keywords: employment, industrial relations, social dialogue Creation-Date: 2018-01-19 Number: 199 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:199-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Salvatori Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Seetha Menon Author-Workplace-Name: European University Institute Author-Name: Wouter Zwysen Author-Workplace-Name: University of Essex Title: The effect of computer use on job quality: Evidence from Europe Abstract: This paper studies changes in computer use and job quality in the EU-15 between 1995 and 2015. We document that while the proportion of workers using computers has increased from 40% to more than 60% over twenty years, there remain significant differences between countries even within the same occupations. Several countries have seen a significant increase in computer use even in low-skilled occupations generally assumed to be less affected by technology. Overall, the great increase in computer use between 1995 and 2015 has coincided with a period of modest deterioration of job quality in the EU-15 as whole, as discretion declined for most occupational and educational groups while intensity increased slightly for most of them. Our OLS results that exploit variation within country-occupation cells point to a sizeable positive effect of computer use on discretion, but to small or no effect on intensity at work. Our instrumental variable estimates point to an even more benign effect of computer use on job quality. Hence, the results suggest that the (moderate) deterioration in the quality of work observed in the EU-15 between 1995 and 2015 has occurred despite the spread of computers, rather than because of them. Classification-JEL: J21; J23; J24; O33 Keywords: discretion, intensity, job polarisation, job quality, tasks Creation-Date: 2018-02-16 Number: 200 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:200-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: James Browne Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Mechanics of replacing benefits systems with a basic income: Comparative results from a microsimulation approach Abstract: Recent debates of basic income (BI) proposals shine a useful spotlight on the challenges that traditional forms of income support are increasingly facing, and highlight gaps in social provisions that largely depend on income or employment status. A universal “no questions asked” public transfer would be simple and have the advantage that no-one would be left without support. But an unconditional payment to everyone at meaningful but fiscally realistic levels would likely require tax rises as well as reductions in existing benefits. We develop a comprehensive BI scenario that facilitates an assessment of the resulting fiscal and distributional effects in a comparative context, undertake a microsimulation study to quantify them, and propose a simple decomposition to identify the mechanisms that drive effects in different country contexts. Results illustrate the challenges, but also the strengths, of existing social protection systems. A BI would fix benefit coverage gaps that exist in many countries, but would require very substantial tax rises if it were to be set at a meaningful level. As support would not be targeted on those most in need, it would not be a cost-effective way of directly reducing income poverty. Classification-JEL: C81; D31; H22; H55 Creation-Date: 2018-03-09 Number: 201 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:201-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ljubica Nedelkoska Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Title: Automation, skills use and training Abstract: This study focuses on the risk of automation and its interaction with training and the use of skills at work. Building on the expert assessment carried out by Carl Frey and Michael Osborne in 2013, the paper estimates the risk of automation for individual jobs based on the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). The analysis improves on other international estimates of the individual risk of automation by using a more disaggregated occupational classification and identifying the same automation bottlenecks emerging from the experts’ discussion. Hence, it more closely aligns to the initial assessment of the potential automation deriving from the development of Machine Learning. Furthermore, this study investigates the same methodology using national data from Germany and United Kingdom, providing insights into the robustness of the results.The risk of automation is estimated for the 32 OECD countries that have participated in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) so far. Beyond the share of jobs likely to be significantly disrupted by automation of production and services, the accent is put on characteristics of these jobs and the characteristics of the workers who hold them. The risk is also assessed against the use of ICT at work and the role of training in helping workers transit to new career opportunities. Classification-JEL: J20; J21; J23; J24 Creation-Date: 2018-03-08 Number: 202 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:202-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gilles Spielvogel Author-Name: Michela Meghnagi Title: The contribution of migration to the dynamics of the labour force in OECD countries: 2005-2015 Abstract: This paper presents the methodology as well as the results of the joint OECD-EC project Migration-Demography Database: A monitoring system of the demographic impact of migration and mobility. The objective of the project is to evaluate the contribution of migration to past and future labour market dynamics across OECD countries. After assessing the role of migration over the last five to 10 years in shaping the occupational and educational composition of the labour force, this project looks at the potential contribution of migration to the labour force in a range of alternative scenarios. This paper presents the results from the first part of the project: it focuses on the changes that have taken place in the last 10 years and studies how migration flows have contributed to the dynamics of the labour force, in particular in comparison to other labour market entries. It also analyses the contribution of migration in specific skills categories and in specific occupations. Classification-JEL: F22; J11; J61 Keywords: Education, Labour force, Migration, Occupations, Working-age population Creation-Date: 2018-05-16 Number: 203 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:203-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gilles Spielvogel Author-Name: Michela Meghnagi Title: Assessing the role of migration in European labour force growth by 2030 Abstract: This paper presents the methodology as well as the results of the joint OECD-European Commission project Migration-Demography Database: A monitoring system of the demographic impact of migration and mobility. The objective of the project is to evaluate the contribution of migration to past and future labour market dynamics across EU and OECD countries. After assessing the role of migration over the last five to 10 years in shaping the occupational and educational composition of the labour force, this project looks at the potential contribution of migration to the labour force in a range of alternative scenarios. This paper presents the results from the second part of the project: it focuses on projections over the period 2015-2030, and aims at identifying the drivers of changes in working-age population and active population in European countries, and in particular the role of migration flows. Classification-JEL: F22; J11; J61 Keywords: Labour force, Migration, Population projections, Working-age population Creation-Date: 2018-05-16 Number: 204 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:204-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: James Browne Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Dirk Neumann Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Céline Thévenot Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Faces of joblessness in Lithuania: A people-centred perspective on employment barriers and policies Abstract: In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis, large shares of working-age individuals in Lithuania either do not work or only to a limited extent. By 2013, several years after the start of the labour-market recovery, 21% were still without employment during the entire year, and a further 11% had weak labour-market attachment, working only a fraction of the year, or on restricted working hours. This paper applies a novel method for measuring and visualising employment barriers of individuals with no or weak labour-market attachment, using household micro-data. It first develops indicators to quantify employment obstacles under three broad headings: (i) work-related capabilities, (ii) incentives, and (iii) employment opportunities. It then uses these indicators in conjunction with a statistical clustering approach to identify unobserved (“latent”) groups of individuals facing similar combinations of barriers. The resulting typology of labour-market difficulties provides insights on the most pressing policy priorities in supporting different groups into employment. A detailed policy discussion illustrates how these empirical results can inform people-centred assessments of existing labour-market integration measures and of key challenges across different policy areas and institutions. The most common employment obstacles in Lithuania were health limitations, limited work experience, and scarce job opportunities. Although financial disincentives and care responsibilities were less widespread overall, they remained important barriers for some groups. A notable finding is that just over one third of jobless or low-intensity workers face three or more simultaneous barriers, highlighting the limits of narrow policy approaches that focus on subsets of these employment obstacles in isolation. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8 Creation-Date: 2018-06-08 Number: 205 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:205-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: James Browne Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Dirk Neumann Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Céline Thévenot Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Faces of joblessness in Estonia: A people-centred perspective on employment barriers and policies Abstract: In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis, large shares of working-age individuals in Estonia either did not work or only to a limited extent. By 2013, several years after the start of the labour-market recovery, 18% were still without employment during the entire year, and a further 13% had weak labour-market attachment, working only a fraction of the year, or on restricted working hours. This paper applies a novel method for measuring and visualising employment barriers of individuals with no or weak labour-market attachment, using household micro-data. It first develops indicators to quantify employment obstacles under three broad headings: (i) work-related capabilities, (ii) incentives, and (iii) employment opportunities. It then uses these indicators in conjunction with a statistical clustering approach to identify unobserved (“latent”) groups of individuals facing similar combinations of barriers. The resulting typology of labour-market difficulties provides insights on the most pressing policy priorities in supporting different groups into employment. A detailed policy discussion illustrates how the empirical results can inform people-centred assessments of existing labour-market integration measures and of key challenges across different policy areas and institutions. The most common employment obstacles in Estonia were low skill levels, health limitations and limited work experience. Financial disincentives, care responsibilities and scarce job opportunities were less widespread overall, although important barriers for some groups. A notable finding is that almost one third of jobless or low-intensity workers face three or more simultaneous barriers, highlighting the limits of narrow policy approaches that focus on subsets of these employment obstacles in isolation. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8 Creation-Date: 2018-06-08 Number: 206 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:206-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: James Browne Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Dirk Neumann Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Céline Thévenot Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Faces of joblessness in Spain: A people-centred perspective on employment barriers and policies Abstract: In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis, large shares of working-age individuals in Spain either did not work or only to a limited extent. As the employment rate bottomed out in 2013, 30% were without employment during the entire year, and a further 15% had weak labour-market attachment, working only a fraction of the year, or on restricted working hours. This paper applies a novel method for measuring and visualising employment barriers of individuals with no or weak labour-market attachment, using household micro-data. It first develops indicators to quantify employment obstacles under three broad headings: (i) work-related capabilities, (ii) incentives, and (iii) employment opportunities. It then uses these indicators in conjunction with a statistical clustering approach to identify unobserved (“latent”) groups of individuals facing similar combinations of barriers. The resulting typology of labour-market difficulties provides insights on the most pressing policy priorities in supporting different groups into employment. A detailed policy discussion illustrates how these empirical results can inform people-centred assessments of existing labour-market integration measures and of key challenges across different policy areas and institutions. The most common employment obstacles in Spain were a lack of work experience, low education and skill levels, and scarce job opportunities. Although financial disincentives, health limitations and care responsibilities were less widespread overall, they remained important barriers for some groups. A striking finding is that 45% of jobless or low-intensity workers face three or more simultaneous barriers, highlighting the limits of narrow policy approaches that focus on subsets of these employment obstacles in isolation. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8 Creation-Date: 2018-06-08 Number: 207 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:207-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: James Browne Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Dirk Neumann Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Céline Thévenot Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Faces of joblessness in Italy: A people-centred perspective on employment barriers and policies Abstract: In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis, large shares of working-age individuals in Italy either did not work or only to a limited extent. As the employment rate bottomed out in 2013, 32% were without employment during the entire year, and a further 7% had weak labour-market attachment, working only a fraction of the year, or on restricted working hours. This paper applies a novel method for measuring and visualising employment barriers of individuals with no or weak labour-market attachment, using household micro-data. It first develops indicators to quantify employment obstacles under three broad headings: (i) work-related capabilities, (ii) incentives, and (iii) employment opportunities. It then uses these indicators in conjunction with a statistical clustering approach to identify unobserved (“latent”) groups of individuals facing similar combinations of barriers. The resulting typology of labour-market difficulties provides insights on the most pressing policy priorities in supporting different groups into employment. A detailed policy discussion illustrates the use of these empirical results to inform people-centred assessments of existing labour-market integration measures and of key challenges across different policy areas and institutions. The most common employment obstacles in Italy were limited work experience, low education and skill levels, and scarce job opportunities. Although financial disincentives, health limitations and care responsibilities were less widespread overall, they remained important barriers for some groups. A striking finding is that more than half of jobless or low-intensity workers face three or more simultaneous barriers, highlighting the limits of narrow policy approaches that focus on subsets of these employment obstacles in isolation. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8 Creation-Date: 2018-06-08 Number: 208 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:208-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: James Browne Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Dirk Neumann Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Céline Thévenot Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Faces of joblessness in Ireland: A People-centred perspective on employment barriers and policies Abstract: In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis, large shares of working-age individuals in Ireland either did not work or only to a limited extent. As the labour-market recovery gathered pace during 2013, 32% were without employment during the entire year, and a further 14% had weak labour-market attachment, working only a fraction of the year, or on restricted working hours. This paper applies a novel method for measuring and visualising employment barriers of individuals with no or weak labour-market attachment, using household micro-data. It first develops indicators to quantify employment obstacles under three broad headings: (i) work-related capabilities, (ii) incentives, and (iii) employment opportunities. It then uses these indicators in conjunction with a statistical clustering approach to identify unobserved (“latent”) groups of individuals facing similar combinations of barriers. The resulting typology of labour-market difficulties provides insights on the most pressing policy priorities in supporting different groups into employment. A detailed policy discussion illustrates how the empirical results can inform people-centred assessments of existing labour-market integration measures and of key challenges across different policy areas and institutions. The most common employment obstacles in Ireland were limited work experience, low skill levels, and scarce job opportunities. Although financial disincentives, health problems and care responsibilities were less widespread overall, they remained important barriers for some groups. A notable finding is that just under 40% of jobless or low-intensity workers face three or more simultaneous barriers, highlighting the limits of narrow policy approaches that focus on subsets of these employment obstacles in isolation. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8 Creation-Date: 2018-06-08 Number: 209 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:209-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nicola Düll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Céline Thévenot Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: James Browne Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Dirk Neumann Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Faces of joblessness in Portugal: A people-centred perspective on employment barriers and policies Abstract: .In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis, large shares of working-age individuals in Portugal either did not work or only to a limited extent. As the employment rate bottomed out in 2013, 29% were without employment during the entire year, and a further 10% had weak labour-market attachment, working only a fraction of the year, or on restricted working hours. This paper applies a novel method for measuring and visualising employment barriers of individuals with no or weak labour-market attachment, using household micro-data. It first develops indicators to quantify employment obstacles under three broad headings: (i) work-related capabilities, (ii) incentives, and (iii) employment opportunities. It then uses these indicators in conjunction with a statistical clustering approach to identify unobserved (“latent”) groups of individuals facing similar combinations of barriers. The resulting typology of labour-market difficulties provides insights on the most pressing policy priorities in supporting different groups into employment. A detailed policy discussion illustrates how these empirical results can inform people-centred assessments of existing labour-market integration measures and of key challenges across different policy areas and institutions. The most common employment obstacles in Portugal were low education/skills, a lack of recent work experience, scarce job opportunities and health problems. Financial disincentives and care responsibilities were less widespread overall, although important barriers for some groups. A striking finding is that 45% of jobless or low-intensity workers face three or more simultaneous barriers, highlighting the limits of narrow policy approaches that focus on subsets of these employment obstacles in isolation. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8 Creation-Date: 2018-06-08 Number: 210 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:210-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Name: Carlo Knotz Title: How demanding are activation requirements for jobseekers Abstract: This paper presents new information on activity-related eligibility criteria for unemployment and related benefits in OECD- and EU-countries in 2017, comparing the strictness of “demanding” elements built into unemployment benefits across countries and over time. Eligibility criteria for unemployment benefits determine what claimants need to do to successfully claim benefits initially or to continue receiving them. Benefit systems feature specific rules that define the type of job offers that claimants need to accept, requirements for reporting on the outcomes of independent job-search efforts, obligations to participate in active labour market programmes, as well as sanctions for failing to meet these requirements. Such rules aim to strengthen incentives to look for, prepare for, and accept employment. They may also be used as a targeting device to reduce demands on benefit systems, and on associated employment services. While this may serve to limit support to genuine jobseekers, strict requirements can also exclude some intended recipients from financial and re-employment support, e.g., by discouraging them from applying. This paper presents detailed information on policy rules in 2017, summarises them into an overall policy indicator of eligibility strictness, and gauges recent policy trends by documenting changes in the strictness measures. A novelty is the inclusion of lower-tier unemployment or social assistance benefits in the compilation of policy rules. Results document a large number of reforms enacted after the Great Recession and suggest a slight convergence of policy rules across countries even though overall measures of the strictness of activity-related eligibility criteria have remained broadly unchanged during the recent past. In countries with multiple layers of support for the unemployed, availability requirements tend to be more demanding for lower-tier assistance benefits, while sanction rules tend to be more stringent for first-tier programmes. Classification-JEL: I38; J08; J65; J68 Creation-Date: 2018-07-11 Number: 215 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:215-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thomas Liebig Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Kristian Rose Tronstad Title: Triple Disadvantage?: A first overview of the integration of refugee women Abstract: 45% of refugees in Europe are women, yet little is known on their integration outcomes and the specific challenges they face. This report summarises prior research on the integration of refugee women, both compared with refugee men and other immigrant women. It also provides new comparative evidence from selected European and non-European OECD countries. Refugee women face a number of particular integration challenges associated with poorer health and lower education and labour market outcomes compared to refugee men, who are already disadvantaged in comparison with other migrant groups. They also show a peak in fertility in the year after arrival. A large fraction has come from countries where gender inequality is high and employment of women tends to be low. However, there is little correlation between indicators such gender differences in participation and employment in the origin and in the host country, suggesting that the integration issues can be addressed by host-country employment and education policy instruments. The report also finds that building basic skills in terms of educational attainment and host-country language training bears a high return in terms of improving labour market outcomes. It also provides intergenerational pay-off for their children. Against this backdrop, structured integration programmes such as the ones in the Scandinavian countries seem to be a worthwhile investment. Classification-JEL: F22; J15; J16 Keywords: Gender, Immigrants, Integration, Refugees, Women Creation-Date: 2018-08-30 Number: 216 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:216-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Christian Lyhne Ibsen Author-Name: Maarten Keune Title: Organised Decentralisation of Collective Bargaining: Case studies of Germany, Netherlands and Denmark Abstract: This paper investigates different varieties of so called organised decentralisation of collective bargaining in Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark. Organised decentralisation occurs within the framework of sector agreements, which explicitly allow determination of terms and conditions at company level, and often set certain (minimum) level standards as well as procedure that have to be respected. German decentralisation is based on its dual-channel system and extensive use of opening clauses, which make workplace derogation from sector-level agreements possible. Dutch decentralisation is based on the dual-channel system and on framework agreements that allow company level bargaining as long as minimum stipulations are observed. Finally, Denmark combines a single-channel system with framework agreements setting minimum levels. Germany stands out as the least organised of the three. Opening and derogation clauses mean that terms and conditions in multi-employer agreements can be undercut. Vertical control over these derogations has suffered from the dual-channel representation in which works councils have a new role. The Netherlands exhibit some, very limited, elements of disorganisation and stable bargaining coverage. Decentralisation has mainly happened through framework agreements setting minimum levels or through the organised transfer of competencies to works councils. The Danish system leaves a lot of scope for local bargaining, the minimum levels are generally observed and bargaining coverage has not suffered. Based on these findings, we draw the conclusion that organised decentralisation requires articulation that preserves a regulatory function of multi-employer agreements. Preservation of multi-employer agreements in turn requires high bargaining coverage. Classification-JEL: J3; J52; J81 Creation-Date: 2018-09-04 Number: 217 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:217-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Name: Thomas Manfredi Author-Name: Yajna Govind Author-Name: Ilya Klauzner Title: Child poverty in the OECD: Trends, determinants and policies to tackle it Abstract: This paper provides an overview of the main trends in child income poverty since the mid-2000s, and explores to what extent child poverty trends are linked to demographic, policy and/or labour market changes. Trends in poverty and the standard of living of children in low-income families since the onset of the Great Recession are also closely examined: nearly 1 in 7 children is income-poor in the OECD, and child poverty increased in almost two/thirds of OECD countries with the Great Recession. About 1 in 10 children across the OECD live in a family with a standard of living below the 2005 poverty line. Children in low-income families experienced a decline in their standard of living in many countries, with the largest decline among families with the smallest incomes. Classification-JEL: I32; I38; J13 Creation-Date: 2018-10-23 Number: 218 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:218-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Tackling child poverty in Korea Abstract: This paper compares the situation of children in Korea relative to other OECD countries in terms of child poverty and well-being. First, trends in child poverty and living standards are described. An overview of key internationally available indicators of child well-being is also provided. The paper discusses the observed poverty trends in relation to social protection programs and to policies implemented to support families. Some priorities for action to make the alleviation of child poverty more effective are discussed. Classification-JEL: I32; I38; J13 Creation-Date: 2018-11-07 Number: 219 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:219-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Tackling child poverty in Canada Abstract: This paper compares the situation of children in Canada relative to other OECD countries in terms of child poverty and well-being. First, trends in child poverty and living standards since 2007, i.e. one year before the onset of the Great Recession, are described. An overview of children's material deprivation and of key indicators of child well-being is also provided. The paper discusses the observed poverty trends in relation to policies implemented to combat it by federal authorities. Some priorities for action to make the alleviation of child poverty more effective are discussed. Creation-Date: 2018-11-07 Number: 220 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:220-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anne Saint-Martin Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Hande Inanc Author-Workplace-Name: Mathematica Policy Research Author-Name: Christopher Prinz Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Job Quality, Health and Productivity: An evidence-based framework for analysis Abstract: The nature, content and milieu of work – i.e. the quality of the working environment – matter in many ways for people, firms and society as a whole. There is a great deal of evidence to show clear associations between job quality and the health of workers, their ability to successfully combine work and life while fully mobilising their skills and abilities to build a career, and their productivity. Investments in quality working environments can be welfare enhancing and economically efficient. Policies and practices reflect these findings insufficiently, an apparent paradox that finds its roots in various market failures. There is scope for public intervention to raise awareness, to ensure better coordination of key stakeholders (employers, workers’ representatives and various public entities) and to put in place the right financial incentives for firms to invest in better working conditions. Action in this field is also important in view of ongoing considerable changes in the labour market. The future of work is very uncertain at this stage; the digitalisation and uberisation of work have the potential for improvements in working conditions but also bear the risk of de-skilling, lower pay, lower job security and poor working conditions for parts of the labour force. Classification-JEL: I31; J24; J28; J81; J88; M14; M54 Creation-Date: 2018-11-21 Number: 221 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:221-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anthony Heath Author-Workplace-Name: Centre for Social Investigation, Nuffield College Author-Name: Lindsay Richards Author-Workplace-Name: Centre for Social Investigation, Nuffield College Title: How do Europeans differ in their attitudes to immigration?: Findings from the European Social Survey 2002/03 – 2016/17 Abstract: Nordic countries such as Sweden, Norway and Finland have been consistently the most favourable to immigration while eastern European countries such as the Czech Republic and Hungary have been the least favourable. Despite their relatively high average levels of support for immigration, however, many countries of western and northern Europe are quite strongly polarized internally along educational and age lines. This can perhaps explain why political divisions over immigration can be so salient in these countries. Comparing results from 2002/03 and 2016/07, one finds that European attitudes were on average quite stable. However, a number of countries became more generous while several others became more negative. On the issue of government policy towards refugees, there was a marked shift in a negative direction after the 2015/16 refugee crisis. Countries such as Austria, Germany, and Sweden which had experienced large inflows of refugees showed particularly large declines in public support for generous government policy towards asylum requests. Classification-JEL: F22; J16; J61 Keywords: European Social Survey, Immigration, Public opinion, Refugees, Symbolic boundaries Creation-Date: 2019-01-16 Number: 222 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:222-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Garnero Author-Name: Francois Rycx Author-Name: Isabelle Terraz Title: Productivity and wage effects of firm-level collective agreements: Evidence from Belgian linked panel data Abstract: How do firm-level collective agreements affect firm performance in a multi-level bargaining system? Using detailed Belgian linked employer-employee panel data, our findings show that firm agreements increase both wage costs and labour productivity (with respect to sector-level agreements). Relying on a recent approach developed by Bartolucci (2014), they also indicate that firm agreements exert a stronger impact on wages than on productivity, so that on average profitability is hampered. However, this rent-sharing effect only holds in sectors where firms are more concentrated. Firm agreements are thus mainly found to raise wages beyond labour productivity when the rents to be shared between workers and firms are relatively big. Overall, this suggests that firm-level agreements benefit both employers and employees – through higher productivity and wages – without being detrimental to firms’ gross profits. Classification-JEL: C33; J24; J31 Creation-Date: 2019-02-11 Number: 223 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:223-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sam Desiere Author-Name: Kristine Langenbucher Author-Name: Ludo Struyven Title: Statistical profiling in public employment services: An international comparison Abstract: Profiling tools help to deliver employment services more efficiently. They can ensure that more costly, intensive services are targeted at jobseekers most at risk of becoming long term unemployed. Moreover, the detailed information on the employment barriers facing jobseekers obtained through the profiling process can be used to tailor services more closely to their individual needs. While other forms of profiling exist, the focus is on statistical profiling, which makes use of statistical models to predict jobseekers’ likelihood of becoming long-term unemployed. An overview on profiling tools currently used throughout the OECD is presented, considerations for the development of such tools, and some insights into the latest developments such as using “click data” on job searches and advanced machine learning techniques. Also discussed are the limitations of statistical profiling tools and options for policymakers on how to address those in the development and implementation of statistical profiling tools. Classification-JEL: J64; J68 Keywords: active labour market policy, caseworkers, employment barrier, jobseekers, selection, statistical profiling, targeting, unemployment Creation-Date: 2019-02-18 Number: 224 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:224-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Otto Kässi Author-Name: Vili Lehdonvirta Title: Do digital skill certificates help new workers enter the market?: Evidence from an online labour platform Abstract: This paper studies the effects of a voluntary skill certification scheme in an online freelancing labour market. The paper show that obtaining skill certificates increases a worker’s earnings. This effect is not driven by increased worker productivity but by decreased employer uncertainty. The increase in worker earnings is mostly realised through an increase in the value of the projects obtained (up to 10%) rather than an increase in the number of projects obtained (up to 0.03 projects). In addition, the paper finds evidence for negative selection to completing skill certificates, which suggests that the workers who complete more skill certificates are, on average, in a more disadvantaged position in the labour market. Finally, skill certificates are found to be an imperfect substitute to other types of standardised information. On the whole, the results suggest that certificates play a role in helping new workers break into the labour market, but are more valuable to workers with at least some work experience. More stringent skill certification tests could improve the benefits to new workers. Classification-JEL: J21; J23; J24; J31; I2 Keywords: gig economy, human capital, online freelancing, platforms, signalling, skill certificates Creation-Date: 2019-02-18 Number: 225 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:225-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Name: Marieke Vandeweyer Title: Faces of joblessness in Australia: An anatomy of employment barriers using household data Abstract: Although Australia’s labour market escaped the dramatic negative impact of the global financial economic crisis seen in other OECD countries, a substantial share of working-age Australians either did were not working or worked only to a limited extent as the global recovery gathered pace between 2013 and 2014. The paper extends a method proposed by Fernandez et al. (2016) to measure and visualise employment barriers of individuals with no or weak labour-market attachment, using household micro-data.The most common employment obstacles in Australia are limited work experience, low skills and poor health. A notable finding is that almost one third of jobless or low-intensity workers face three or more simultaneous barriers, highlighting the limits of policy approaches that focus on subsets of these employment obstacles in isolation. A statistical clustering approach points to seven distinct groups, each characterized by unique profiles of employment barriers that call for different configurations of activation and employment-support policies. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8 Creation-Date: 2019-04-25 Number: 226 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:226-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stéphane Carcillo Author-Name: Antoine Goujard Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Stefan Thewissen Title: Assessing recent reforms and policy directions in France: Implementing the OECD Jobs Strategy Abstract: The OECD actively supports countries with the implementation of the OECD Jobs Strategy through the preparation of labour market chapters in the OECD Economic Surveys. This paper provides an overview of the analytical work carried out in the context of the 2019 Economic Survey for France. The paper consists of a preliminary assessment of the French labour market reforms since 2017 related to the tax and benefit system, employment protection, and collective bargaining. These reforms are broadly in line with the recommendations of the OECD Jobs Strategy. They are likely to contribute to enhanced employment and living standards of low-skilled workers and reduce labour market duality. However, a close monitoring will be necessary to assess whether their implementation has the desired effects and additional measures are needed. Classification-JEL: J3; J41; J51 Keywords: collective bargaining, employment protection legislation, France, OECD Jobs Strategy, taxes and benefits Creation-Date: 2019-05-15 Number: 227 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:227-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Zachary Parolin Title: Automation and occupational wage trends Abstract: Routine-biased technological change has emerged as a leading explanation for the differential wage growth of routine occupations, such as manufacturers or office clerks, relative to less routine occupations. Less clear, however, is how the effects of technological advancement on occupational wage trends vary across political-institutional context. This paper investigates the extent to which collective bargaining agreements and union coverage shape the relative wage growth of automatable occupations. Using data from the Luxembourg Income Study and the United States Current Population Survey, I measure the ‘routine task intensity’ of occupations across 15 OECD Member States and the 50 United States from the 1980s onward. Findings suggest that bargaining coverage is more consequential for the wage growth of high routine occupations relative to less routine occupations, and that high routine occupations lose coverage at a faster rate when bargaining coverage at the national level declines. As a result, declines in bargaining coverage within a country are associated with declining relative wage growth for automatable occupations. Estimates suggest that had union coverage in the United States not declined from 1984 levels, the earnings of high routine occupations might have grown at the same rate as low pay occupations between 1984 and 2015, rather than experiencing a relative wage decline. However, the findings also suggest that gains in the relative wage growth may increasingly come at the cost of reduced employment shares of automatable occupations. Classification-JEL: E24; J51 Keywords: automation, collective bargaining, occupations, trade unions, wages Creation-Date: 2019-05-21 Number: 228 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:228-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Michele Tuccio Title: Measuring and assessing talent attractiveness in OECD countries Abstract: This paper introduces a new set of indicators aimed at benchmarking how OECD countries fare in attracting talented migrants. Three different profiles of talent are considered: workers with graduate (master or doctorate) degrees, entrepreneurs, and university students. After providing a definition of the notion of talent attractiveness, this paper develops a conceptual framework for the study of the phenomenon, and discusses the variables used to construct the composite indicators. Sensitivity analysis is performed in order to make sure the indicators are robust to several statistical checks. Finally, the paper documents the attractiveness of OECD countries to the different profiles of talented migrants. Classification-JEL: F22; J61; O15; R23 Keywords: Entrepreneurs, High-skilled Workers, Immigrants, Students, Talent Creation-Date: 2019-05-29 Number: 229 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:229-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrew Green Title: What is happening to middle skill workers? Abstract: This report asks what is happening to middle-skill workers. Driven by mega trends such as automation, ageing and offshoring, the share of jobs whose wages placed them firmly in the middle of the wage distribution has been declining. Termed job polarisation, economists have observed the decline in the share of middle-skill jobs in the majority of OECD labour markets. One little explored question is where are these workers going? This report examines what workers are doing who in the past would have been employed in middle-skill jobs. The report first examines the traits of previous middle-skill workers to build a picture of the “typical” middle-skill worker. Using this profile, the report next examines what types of jobs a worker with the typical middle-skill profile is taking, and how likely such a worker is to be working. The study then analyses different metrics of job stability and compensation to put in perspective what shifts out of middle-skill work imply for labour market outcomes. Classification-JEL: J24; J21; J62; I26 Creation-Date: 2019-06-04 Number: 230 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:230-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Priscilla Fialho Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Author-Name: Marieke Vandeweyer Title: Returns to different forms of job related training: Factoring in informal learning Abstract: This study aims at disentangling the returns to formal, non-formal and informal training and fills key knowledge gaps. Informal learning is found to be by far the most common form of job-related learning at work. Learning informally at work is found to be associated with 3.5% higher wages, on top of the wage returns of non-formal training which amount to about 11%. Work environments which apply high performance work organisation practices – i.e. where workers have more autonomy and work in teams – are found to nurture a training culture that yields high returns. Workers in these contexts are 12% more likely to experience informal learning. In addition, they also reap higher returns from the training they attend, both non-formal and informal. This suggests that HPWP may amplify the benefits of learning at work, possibly giving workers more opportunities to turn what they learn into immediate use because of the increased flexibility in organising once work. Classification-JEL: J24; J3; I26; M54 Keywords: informal learning, productivity, Training, wages, work organisation Creation-Date: 2019-06-04 Number: 231 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:231-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Salvatori Author-Name: Thomas Manfredi Title: Job polarisation and the middle class: New evidence on the changing relationship between skill levels and household income levels from 18 OECD countries Abstract: Labour markets across the OECD have polarised in recent decades, as the share of middle skill occupations has declined relative to that of both high- and low skill occupations. This paper shows that, contrary to what is often assumed in the public debate, job polarisation has not resulted in a decline in the share of households with middle-income across 18 OECD countries. Most of the changes in the share of middle-income households result instead from changes in the propensity of workers in different occupations to be in it. In fact the results point to a change in the relationship between occupational skill levels and household income as both middle and high skill jobs increasingly fail to deliver on the promise of the relative income status traditionally associated with their skill level. These changes might help explain some of the social frustration that has been at the centre of the political debate in recent years. Classification-JEL: J01 Keywords: job polarisation, living standards, middle class Creation-Date: 2019-07-19 Number: 232 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:232-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Pauline Musset Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Improving work-based learning in schools Abstract: Looking at secondary schools, this paper analyses work-based learning (WBL) as an element of both general education and vocational programmes. The workplace is a powerful learning environment where technical skills can be learnt from expert practitioners using real-life equipment, while also acquiring key soft skills such as teamwork and communication. WBL offers students the opportunity to transition from school to work, while for employers it offers a means of recruitment. However, it can be challenging to engage employers. Quality requires good WBL design and supporting mechanisms. The length and sequencing of WBL are important. The equity risks of WBL also need to be managed. The paper considers different policy messages for schools and jurisdictions. Creation-Date: 2019-09-30 Number: 233 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:233-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Duncan MacDonald Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Under-employment: A crisis hangover, or something more? Abstract: This paper examines how the increase in under-employment since the financial crisis stems from both cyclical and structural factors, notably the gradual shift of employment toward more demand-driven service sectors. The increase in under-employment has disproportionately affected young, female and low-skilled workers, meaning that they face lower wage growth, particularly at the bottom of the income distribution. Classification-JEL: E32; J22; J23 Creation-Date: 2019-10-16 Number: 234 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:234-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Name: Eric Edmonds Title: Child labour: Causes, consequences and policies to tackle it Abstract: Sustainable Development Goal target 8.7 aims to eradicate child labour in all its forms by 2025. Ten years before this deadline, the objective is far from being achieved since in 2016, about one-in-ten children (152 million in total) aged 5 to 17 were engaged in child labour worldwide, many of them as unpaid family workers in agriculture. Nearly half of the children in child labour were in hazardous work and exposed to serious health and safety risks. Moreover, about one-third of children in child labour do not attend school at all; the others go to school, but not all the time. Children in child labour are more likely to leave school early, before grade completion, and underperform in school tests.This paper reviews child labour trends, and the literature on its causes and consequences. It also discusses policies to combat child labour based on the lessons of the available evidence. Countries must combat child labour by addressing it from all its “demand” and “supply” side dimensions: by strengthening social protection to combat extreme poverty, by investing in the education to make it an affordable alternative to child labour, and by encouraging the diffusion of technologies that make it possible to do without child labour. While most countries have adopted laws that prohibit child labour, the paper argues that countries can do more to enforce these laws and regulations, where necessary strengthen labour inspections and monitoring systems, and promote responsible business practices. Creation-Date: 2019-11-20 Number: 235 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:235-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daniel Alonso Soto Title: Technology and the future of work in emerging economies: What is different Abstract: Technological developments are likely to bring many new opportunities, which may be even larger in emerging economies and may allow them to “leapfrog” certain stages of development. Notwithstanding these opportunities, emerging economies face significant challenges associated with rapid technological progress. Many of these challenges are the same as in advanced economies, but differences in starting conditions may result in a greater threat for the emerging world. This study explores the benefits and risks brought by this new technological wave from the perspective of thirteen key emerging economies: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Chile, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and Turkey. In particular, it examines: the risk of automation; whether labour markets are polarising; and the potential benefits (but also challenges) of the platform economy. Classification-JEL: J24; J21; J23; J30; O33 Creation-Date: 2020-01-30 Number: 236 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:236-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Andrea Salvatori Title: Designing fair and work-oriented unemployment benefits: The case of Belgium Abstract: This note focuses on the design of fair and work-oriented unemployment benefits, with a specific focus on Belgium, a country in which the design of the unemployment benefits system has become the subject of an intense policy debate in recent years. After taking stock of the most recent literature and international policy practices, the note describes the main features of the Belgian unemployment benefit system and proposes a number of policy recommendations that can help to make the current unemployment benefit system more work-oriented and fair across all groups of unemployed. Classification-JEL: J65 Creation-Date: 2020-02-03 Number: 237 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:237-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Lenka Drazanova Author-Workplace-Name: European University Institute Author-Name: Thomas Liebig Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Silvia Migali Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission, Joint Research Centre Author-Name: Marco Scipioni Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission, Joint Research Centre Author-Name: Gilles Spielvogel Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: What are Europeans’ views on migrant integration?: An in-depth analysis of 2017 Special Eurobarometer “Integration of immigrants in the European Union” Abstract: This paper provides an in-depth description of public opinion about immigrants’ integration in European countries, as captured in the 2017 Special Eurobarometer on this topic. It highlights a near consensus among European respondents on the meaning of integration, but more variation across countries regarding policy options to support integration. It also shows that positive opinions about immigration are often associated with a favourable public perception of integration. Looking at the individual correlates of opinions about immigration and integration, this paper finds that actual knowledge about the magnitude of immigration is positively correlated with attitudes to immigration but not integration. In contrast, more interactions with immigrants are associated with more positive views on integration but not necessarily on immigration. Classification-JEL: F22; J61; J68 Keywords: Eurobarometer, Immigration, Integration, Public opinion Creation-Date: 2020-02-19 Number: 238 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:238-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rohen d’Aiglepierre Author-Name: Anda David Author-Name: Charlotte Levionnois Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Gilles Spielvogel Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Michele Tuccio Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Erik Vickstrom Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: A global profile of emigrants to OECD countries: Younger and more skilled migrants from more diverse countries Abstract: This paper presents new findings on the main characteristics of immigrants living in OECD countries by country of origin, drawing from the updated Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC) 2015/16. It describes migrant populations by country of destination and country of origin in 2015/16, as well as the dynamics of international migration to OECD countries since 2000/01. It also presents evidence on overall emigration rates and emigration rates of the highly educated at the regional and country levels. Finally, the paper looks at age patterns in immigrant populations. Classification-JEL: F22; J61; O15 Keywords: DIOC, Emigration rates, Immigrant stocks, International migration Creation-Date: 2020-02-20 Number: 239 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:239-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Antonela Miho Author-Workplace-Name: Paris School of Economics Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Treating all children equally?: Why policies should adapt to evolving family living arrangements Abstract: Modern family life brings with it profound changes to children's family living arrangements. An increasing number of children live with unmarried parents whose informal cohabitation implies unequal rights in terms of access to welfare benefit and social protection programmes compared to those in married life. In addition, children experiencing family dissolution are increasingly likely to share their time between the two homes of the separated parents, and/or to live in a stepfamily. The family living arrangements that result from these trends are very diverse and generally not well identified by official statistics, as well as their consequences on families’ living standards.This paper takes stock of the trends in children's family living arrangements based on available international statistics and calls for the development of data that more accurately and reliably reflect children's family situation and its economic consequences. It also discusses adaptations of social protection systems to ensure that all children receive support appropriate to their concrete family living arrangements, and to guarantee that children in a non-traditional family setting are treated on an equal footing vis-à-vis children with married parents.The paper particularly discusses issues raised by the fact that children whose parents live together informally do not always have the same legal and economic security as children of married couples. It also reviews challenges associated with the fact that parents are increasingly sharing custody of their children after separation. Keywords: cohabitation, family complexity, family fluidity, family policy, registered partnership Creation-Date: 2020-03-20 Number: 240 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:240-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Chiara Criscuolo Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Cyrille Schwellnus Author-Name: Erling Barth Author-Name: Wen-Hao Chen Author-Name: Richard Fabling Author-Name: Priscilla Fialho Author-Name: Katarzyna Grabska-Romagosa Author-Name: Ryo Kambayashi Author-Name: Timo Leidecker Author-Name: Oskar Nordström Skans Author-Name: Capucine Riom Author-Name: Duncan Roth Author-Name: Balazs Stadler Author-Name: Richard Upward Author-Name: Wouter Zwysen Title: Workforce composition, productivity and pay: The role of firms in wage inequality Abstract: In many OECD countries, low productivity growth has coincided with rising inequality. Widening wage and productivity gaps between firms may have contributed to both developments. This paper uses a new harmonised cross-country linked employer-employee dataset for 14 OECD countries to analyse the role of firms in wage inequality. The main finding is that, on average across countries, changes in the dispersion of average wages between firms explain about half of the changes in overall wage inequality. Two thirds of these changes in between-firm wage inequality are accounted for by changes in productivity-related premia that firms pay their workers above common market wages. The remaining third can be attributed to changes in workforce composition, including the sorting of high-skilled workers into high-paying firms. Classification-JEL: D2; J31; J38 Keywords: firm wage premium, productivity, wage inequality Creation-Date: 2020-05-01 Number: 241 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:241-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ricardo Espinoza Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Laura Reznikova Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Who can log in? The importance of skills for the feasibility of teleworking arrangements across OECD countries Abstract: COVID-19 lockdowns have radically changed the working arrangements for millions of workers. But who are the workers best positioned to work from home? Drawing on data from the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), we show that workers possessing higher levels of skills are significantly more likely to telework in OECD countries. We show that while 30% of workers could telework across the OECD, the likelihood decreases for workers without tertiary education and with lower levels of numeracy and literacy skills. The findings raise important questions with respect to the extent to which the pandemic could exacerbate existing labour market inequalities, and the extent to which these inequalities could further worsen amidst intensified technology adoption in the pandemic’s aftermath. Classification-JEL: D24; J22; J61; O30; R12; R32 Creation-Date: 2020-06-25 Number: 242 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:242-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daniel Acquah Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Title: Delivering evidence based services for all vulnerable families Abstract: The paper provides a summary on the role of family services in promoting child well-being, and then reviews the policy issues at all levels of the family service delivery systems. At the government level, the paper emphasizes the need to fostering collaboration between different government bodies, and to ensure adequate funding for early intervention and preventative services. At service delivery level, the main identified issues include getting a better integration between delivery organisations, building capacities to adapt evidence based interventions, sharing tools to facilitate service implementation, training practitioners with the necessary skills, ensuring that service delivery fits within the local context, and engaging families in services. Creation-Date: 2020-07-08 Number: 243 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:243-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Marieke Vandeweyer Author-Name: Annelore Verhagen Title: The changing labour market for graduates from medium-level vocational education and training Abstract: This working paper looks at the labour market outcomes of individuals who hold a medium-level VET qualification (defined as upper or post-secondary non-tertiary education with vocational orientation) today, as well as how they have changed in the past 10 to 15 years and what can be expected in the medium-term. It looks at indicators of job quality and quantity, and zooms in on the types of occupations that employ VET graduates. The outcomes of VET graduates younger than 35 years old are compared to those of general education graduates (at the same education level), tertiary education graduates and graduates without an upper secondary education degree. Finally, based on these findings, the report discusses key policy directions to improve VET graduates’ access to high-quality jobs. Classification-JEL: J21; J24; J62; I26 Creation-Date: 2020-07-18 Number: 244 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:244-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coralie Perez Author-Name: Ann Vourc'h Title: Individualising training access schemes: France – the Compte Personnel de Formation (Personal Training Account – CPF) Abstract: The creation of the Compte Personnel de Formation (CPF), an individualised financing scheme for professional training, marked an important step for the French professional training system. Implemented in 2015, it is the only example at the international level of an individual learning account in which training rights are accumulated over time. Born from a compromise between social partners, the CPF has generated significant improvements in training quality. The law of September 5, 2018 “For the freedom to choose one’s professional future” brought significant changes to the account in order to strengthen the role of the individual in the system, to reduce the role of collective actors – in particular sectors – and to increase that of free competition and market forces. After reviewing the design of the CPF before and after the reform, this paper provides evidence on its use in practice, discusses the extent to which it succeeds in reaching groups usually under-represented in training, as well as issues related to the quality of training. It concludes with a discussion of the CPF strengths and weaknesses. Classification-JEL: J24; J58; J62; M53; K31 Creation-Date: 2020-07-03 Number: 245 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:245-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Coralie Perez Author-Name: Ann Vourc'h Title: L’individualisation des dispositifs d’accès à la formation: l’exemple français du Compte Personnel de Formation Abstract: La création du Compte personnel de formation (CPF) marque une étape importante pour le système français de formation continue en instituant un dispositif individualisé de financement de formations. Mis en œuvre en janvier 2015, il est actuellement le seul exemple existant au niveau international de compte individuel de formation sur lequel les individus accumulent des droits à la formation au cours du temps. D’abord le fruit d’un compromis entre les acteurs sociaux, le CPF a généré d’importantes avancées en matière de qualité de la formation. La loi du 5 septembre 2018 “Pour la liberté de choisir son avenir professionnel” modifie significativement le compte dans l’objectif de renforcer la place de l’individu dans le système, de réduire le rôle des acteurs collectifs – notamment des branches -, et d’augmenter celui du libre jeu de la concurrence et du marché. Après une revue des caractéristiques du CPF avant et après la réforme, ce document fournit des éléments sur l’utilisation du CPF en pratique, discute la mesure dans laquelle le dispositif atteint les publics généralement sous-représentés et les questions liées à la qualité de la formation. Il conclue par une discussion des forces et faiblesses du CPF. Classification-JEL: J24; J58; J62; M53; K31 Creation-Date: 2020-07-03 Number: 245 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:245-FR Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Vincenzo Galasso Author-Workplace-Name: Sciences Po, Paris Author-Name: Martial Foucault Author-Workplace-Name: Bocconi University Title: Working during COVID-19: Cross-country evidence from real-time survey data Abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 and the unprecedented measures taken by many countries to slow down the spread of the coronavirus caused large economic and psychological costs. This paper uses real time survey data from two waves run at the end of March and in mid-April to provide a snapshot of the actual labour market outcomes in twelve countries. Our study reveals large cross-country differences. At the end of March, when large disparity existed in the diffusion of the pandemic and in the lockdown measures, a large share of employed individuals had stopped working in France (38%) and Italy (47%), but much less in Australia (13%) and the US (10%). Large differences remained in mid-April. Yet, some common patterns emerge. Labour market outcomes varied according to workers’ educational attainments and occupation types. College graduates and white collars worked more from home and less from the regular workplace. Instead, low educated workers and blue collars were more likely to remain in the regular work place or to stop working. Similar patterns emerge with respect to the workers’ (family) income. This evidence suggests that initial labour market effects of COVID-19 (and of the lockdown measures) may have contributed to increase pre-existing inequalities. Classification-JEL: J21; I30 Creation-Date: 2020-07-29 Number: 246 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:246-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gaetano Basso Author-Workplace-Name: Bank of Italy Author-Name: Tito Boeri Author-Workplace-Name: Bocconi University Author-Name: Alessandro Caiumi Author-Workplace-Name: Bocconi University Author-Name: Marco Paccagnella Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The new hazardous jobs and worker reallocation Abstract: This paper analyses several dimensions of workers’ safety that are relevant in the context of a pandemic. We provide a classification of occupations according to the risk of contagion: by considering a wider range of job characteristics and a more nuanced assessment of infection risk, we expand on the previous literature that almost exclusively looked at feasibility of working from home. We apply our classification to the United States and to European countries and we find that roughly 50% of jobs in our sample can be considered safe, although a large cross-country variation exists, notably in the potential incidence of remote working. We find that the most economically vulnerable workers (low-educated, low-wage workers, immigrants, workers on temporary contracts, and part-timers) are over-represented in unsafe jobs, notably in non-essential activities. We assess the nature of the reallocation of workers from unsafe to safe jobs that is likely to take place in the years to come, and the policies that could mitigate the social cost of this reallocation. Classification-JEL: J28; J23; J81 Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic, workers’ reallocation, working conditions Creation-Date: 2020-07-29 Number: 247 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:247-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Stefan Thewissen Title: The 2018-2021 working time reform in Korea: A preliminary assessment Abstract: To reduce the incidence of very long working hours, Korea is gradually implementing a major working-time reform, which lowers the statutory limit on total weekly working hours from 68 to 52 between 2018-2021. This paper provides a preliminary assessment of the reform with three key insights. First, the ongoing reform will bring Korea’s working time regulation in line with the dominant OECD practice. Second, the implementation of the 52-hour limit among large firms reduced the incidence of working more than 52 hours by 5 percentage points or about a fifth of its pre-reform level among employees working overtime. While these results are encouraging, they also suggest that working very long hours remains common, even among large firms that are subject to the new 52-hour limit. Third, two in five workers will remain exempt from the 52-hour limit once it is fully implemented in 2021. The main conclusion is that the reform represents an important step in the right direction, but that further efforts are needed to effectively change Korea’s long working-hour culture. Classification-JEL: J22; J28; J21 Creation-Date: 2020-08-11 Number: 248 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:248-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Name: Stefan Thewissen Title: Identifying and addressing employment barriers in Belgium, Korea and Norway: Implementing the OECD Jobs Strategy Abstract: This paper documents joblessness in OECD countries, provides a detailed diagnosis of structural employment barriers in Belgium, Korea and Norway by applying the OECD Faces of Joblessness methodology to the situation just before the COVID-19 crisis and discusses the policy implications. It shows that individuals experiencing major employment difficulties often face a combination of barriers related to work availability, readiness and incentives. It suggests a number of avenues for enhancing the effectiveness of public support: i) make greater use of statistical profiling tools to adapt programmes to the needs of the jobless and target resources to those at the highest risk of long-term joblessness; ii) better coordinate support provided by employment, health and education services; iii) place a greater emphasis on preventive policies (equal opportunities, life-long learning). Classification-JEL: J21; J22; J68 Creation-Date: 2020-08-11 Number: 249 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:249-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Viktoria Kis Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Improving evidence on VET: Comparative data and indicators Abstract: The international landscape of vocational education and training (VET) is hugely diverse – and more diverse than most other sectors of education systems. There is wide variation across countries in how vocational programmes are organised and delivered, the ages and stages of education at which individuals pursue VET and how VET is funded. This diversity creates an opportunity to exploit cross-country variation to identify the features of VET systems associated with better educational, labour market and social outcomes for graduates. At the same time, country comparisons need good data, but comparative data on VET have major gaps. This report identifies existing and new indicators of VET systems that are suitable for international comparisons, based on current data availability and quality. The report does not directly fill those data gaps, but establishes the dimensions of the gaps and sets out how one might go about filling them, while giving some proposals for future indicator development. Creation-Date: 2020-09-14 Number: 250 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:250-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Michael Förster Author-Name: Sebastian Königs Title: Promoting social mobility in Austria Abstract: While income inequality in Austria is relatively low compared to many other OECD countries, social mobility lags behind. Socio-economic outcomes carry over strongly from one generation to the next: more than elsewhere, fathers’ earnings are a strong predictor of the earnings of their prime-age children. This reflects strong persistence across generations in occupational and educational outcomes, particularly for women and migrants. Relative income positions also tend to strongly persist over people’s lives, in particular at the top and bottom. Meanwhile, the middle-income group is polarising, with downward risks rising for the lower middle. Longer-term earnings trajectories (over 15 years) display marked gender differences, with women facing weaker chances of moving up and greater risks of sliding down.This paper identifies policies that promote or hamper social mobility in four domains. First, good-quality early childhood education and care can be a catalyst for upward mobility. Participation rates have significantly risen over the last decade, but still lag those in many OECD countries. Further investment is needed to improve quality and status of formal childcare. Second, tackling low educational mobility in Austria requires ensuring a successful school-to-work transition. Austria provides targeted support for those who struggle, but it could improve funding for disadvantaged schools and consider the appropriateness of "tracking" students at such a young age. Third, reducing gender inequality in the labour market would greatly improve social mobility. This requires raising incentives for a more equal sharing of family and work responsibilities in the areas of tax policy, parental leave and family and care benefits. Fourth, the Austrian tax and benefit system provides comparatively adequate protection against income shocks. The high concentration of household wealth, combined with the absence of inheritance taxation, however implies that inequalities of opportunity remain large. Classification-JEL: D31; I38; J62 Creation-Date: 2020-12-22 Number: 251 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:251-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Raphaela Hyee Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Name: Jongmi Lee Title: How reliable are social safety nets?: Value and accessibility in situations of acute economic need Abstract: Social protection systems use a range of entitlement criteria. First-tier support typically requires contributions or past employment in many countries, while safety net benefits are granted on the basis of need. In a context of volatile and uncertain labour markets, careful and continuous monitoring of the effectiveness of income support is a key input into an evidence-based policy process. This paper proposes a novel empirical method for monitoring the accessibility and levels of safety net benefits. It focusses on minimum-income benefits (MIB) and other non-contributory transfers and relies on data on the amounts of cash support that individuals in need receive in practice. Results show that accessibility and benefit levels differ enormously across countries – for instance, in 2015/16, more than four out of five low-income workless one-person households received MIB in Australia, France and the United Kingdom, compared to only one in five in Greece, Italy and Korea, three countries that have since sought to strengthen aspects of safety-net provisions. Classification-JEL: H53; H31; D31; I38; C31; C35; C53 Keywords: minimum income, poverty, social assistance, social benefits, social protection, social protection floors Creation-Date: 2020-12-22 Number: 252 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:252-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Duncan MacDonald Author-Name: Christopher Prinz Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Title: Can disability benefits promote (re)employment?: Considerations for effective disability benefit design Abstract: Previous OECD reports have concluded that disability policy has changed substantially in many OECD countries in recent decades. Nevertheless, large employment gaps remain between people with a disability and those without. This paper builds on earlier OECD analysis and recent extensions to OECD’s tax-benefit model (http://oe.cd/TaxBEN) for selected countries. The paper aims to assess the adequacy of income support programmes for people with reduced work capacity and their related work incentives. It describes how the system characteristics of these programs shape labour-market behaviour and employment. The paper finds evidence that the broader institutional setup of a disability programme does not necessarily have a major impact on key aspects of social-protection effectiveness. All types of scheme can achieve reasonable levels of benefit adequacy and broad benefit coverage for people with work limitations. However, design specifics matter considerably for people’s likelihood of (re-)employment. Classification-JEL: I38; J14; J18; J21; J22; J20 Creation-Date: 2020-12-22 Number: 253 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:253-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Wouter Zwysen Author-Name: Mats Erik Lillehagen Title: Job mobility, reallocation and wage growth: A tale of two countries Abstract: This paper analyses the role of job mobility for job reallocation and aggregate wage growth in Norway and the United States using linked employer-employee data. It provides four main findings. First, despite lower overall job mobility in Norway, the speed of worker reallocation from low-wage to high-wage firms is similar to that in the United States. Second, job reallocation tends to be counter-cyclical in Norway, but pro-cyclical in the United States, due to the weaker tendency of high-wage firms in the United States to hoard workers during economic downturns. Third, the reallocation of workers from low to high wage firms through job-to-job mobility disproportionately benefits high-skilled workers in Norway and low-skilled workers in the United States. Fourth, the slowdown in aggregate wage growth primarily reflects a weakening of on-the-job wage growth in both countries rather than a reduced role of job reallocation between low and high-wage firms (although this does also play a role in the United States). Classification-JEL: J31; J62 Creation-Date: 2021-01-13 Number: 254 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:254-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexandre Georgieff Author-Name: Anna Milanez Title: What happened to jobs at high risk of automation? Abstract: This study looks at what happened to jobs at risk of automation over the past decade and across 21 countries.There is no support for net job destruction at the broad country level. All countries experienced employment growth over the past decade. Within countries, however, employment growth has been much lower in jobs at high risk of automation (6%) than in jobs at low risk (18%). Low-educated workers were more concentrated in high-risk occupations in 2012 and have become even more concentrated in these occupations since then. In spite of this, the low growth in jobs in high-risk occupations has not led to a drop in the employment rate of low-educated workers relative to that of other education groups. This is largely because the number of low-educated workers has fallen in line with the demand for these workers.Going forward, however, the risk of automation is increasingly falling on low-educated workers and the COVID-19 crisis may have accelerated automation, as companies reduce reliance on human labour and contact between workers, or re-shore some production. Classification-JEL: E32; J22; J23 Keywords: automation, job stability Creation-Date: 2021-01-25 Number: 255 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:255-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Marguerita Lane Author-Name: Anne Saint-Martin Title: The impact of Artificial Intelligence on the labour market: What do we know so far? Abstract: This literature review takes stock of what is known about the impact of artificial intelligence on the labour market, including the impact on employment and wages, how AI will transform jobs and skill needs, and the impact on the work environment. The purpose is to identify gaps in the evidence base and inform future OECD research on AI and the labour market. Classification-JEL: J20; J81; J31; O14; O33 Keywords: AI, Artificial intelligence, Future of Work, Litterature review, Technology Creation-Date: 2021-01-25 Number: 256 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:256-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sarah Kuypers Author-Workplace-Name: University of Antwerp Author-Name: Francesco Figari Author-Workplace-Name: University of Insubria Author-Name: Gerlinde Verbist Author-Workplace-Name: University of Antwerp Title: Redistribution from a joint income-wealth perspective: Results from 16 European OECD countries Abstract: Redistributive analyses typically use household income as the main reference variable to rank households and to assess their tax liabilities and benefit entitlements. However, the importance of wealth, and the potential redistributive effects of wealth-related taxation, are increasingly recognised. By using data from the Household Finance and Consumption Survey (HFCS) as input data for the tax-benefit microsimulation model EUROMOD, we assess the redistributive effects of taxes and benefits against the joint income-wealth distribution for 16 European OECD countries. This is a new approach that extends indicators developed in the asset-based poverty literature. We study wealth-related taxes alongside other tax-benefit instruments. The analysis allows us to gain insight into which types of policies are redistributive in which institutional settings taking account of the distribution of both income and wealth. This paper extends our pilot study of six countries (Kuypers, Figari, & Verbist, 2019), and updates it to 2017 policies. Classification-JEL: D31; H24; I30 Creation-Date: 2021-01-22 Number: 257 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:257-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Emily Farchy Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Title: Faces of joblessness in Finland: A people-centred perspective on employment barriers and policies Abstract: Following five years of economic growth, employment in Finland increased to 72.6% of the working-age population in 2019. The effects of the strong recovery, however, were not felt by all, and long-term unemployment remains stubbornly high. This report uses a statistical clustering model to map individuals with similar support needs into 8 “faces” of joblessness: (1) the rural inactive; (2) unstable workers; (3) skilled retirees; (4) urban active; (5) female carers; (6) low-skilled youth; (7) prime-aged low skilled; and finally (8) those with limited financial incentives. These results shed light on the effectiveness of existing employment support strategies, and lay the foundation for the development of holistic policy packages: that are tailored to the barriers people face; that recognise most people with weak labour-market attachment face multiple barriers, and that coordinate policy interventions across policy domains and institutions accordingly. Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8; I38 Creation-Date: 2021-02-01 Number: 258 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:258-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Andrea Salvatori Title: Introducing individual savings accounts for severance pay in Spain: An ex-ante assessment of the distributional effects Abstract: This report provides an ex ante assessment of the distributional effects of introducing portable severance pay accounts in Spain based on micro-simulations. In the current system, permanent workers who are dismissed from their job are entitled to 20 days of severance pay per year of service, which is relatively high by OECD standards. The report considers a reform that replaces the current severance payment system with individual saving accounts financed through periodic contributions by employers. The report focuses on two versions of the reform that keep constant respectively the total compensation in case of dismissal (“constant benefit”) or the expected costs for firms of employing a permanent worker (“constant-cost”). Importantly, the analysis in the report does do not take account of the behavioural responses of firms and workers to the reform. Classification-JEL: H55; J32; J62 Keywords: employment protection, individual savings accounts, job mobility, microsimulation Creation-Date: 2021-03-17 Number: 259 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:259-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sophie Riding Author-Name: Olivier Thévenon Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Name: Gráinne Dirwan Title: Looking beyond COVID-19: Strengthening family support services across the OECD Abstract: This paper provides an overview of the nature and key priorities of family support services operating in OECD countries to inform on the factors that contribute to their quality and delivery effectiveness. The evidence collated in this paper draws from the responses to Questionnaires answered by delegates to the OECD Working Party on Social Policy and by around 170 family service providers from OECD countries. The report discusses policy options to help countries develop and sustain the effective delivery of family support services throughout childhood, improve their quality, and to make better use of digital tools to enhance service delivery. Classification-JEL: L88; D02; D04 Keywords: Family support services, Integrated services, Family and Child policies and outcomes, Digital tools, Evidence-based practice. Creation-Date: 2021-03-30 Number: 260 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:260-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Marissa Plouin Author-Name: Willem Adema Author-Name: Pauline Fron Author-Name: Paul-Marie Roth Title: A crisis on the horizon: Ensuring affordable, accessible housing for people with disabilities Abstract: This paper discusses housing challenges facing people with disabilities in OECD and EU countries, and policy supports to make housing more affordable, accessible and adapted to their needs. It focuses on the adult population with disabilities living outside institutions, drawing on data from the European Union Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC), household surveys, national population census and disability surveys, and country responses to the 2021 OECD Questionnaire on Affordable and Social Housing. The paper summarises housing outcomes; discusses policy supports to ensure that people with disabilities can be safely, affordably and independently housed; and outlines actions for policy makers. Classification-JEL: I38; H53; R21; R31 Keywords: Accessibility, Disability, Housing Affordability, Public investment Creation-Date: 2021-09-03 Number: 261 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:261-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anne Lauringson Author-Name: Marius Lüske Title: Institutional set-up of active labour market policy provision in OECD and EU countries: Organisational set-up, regulation and capacity Abstract: This study provides a framework to compare and classify the institutional set-up of active labour market policy (ALMP) provision across countries, which is a key determinant of how well ALMP systems can respond to changing labour market needs, e.g. in response to the COVID-19 crisis. The paper builds on an OECD-EC questionnaire on “Active labour market policy measures to mitigate the rise in (long-term) unemployment” filled in by OECD and EU countries in the last quarter of 2020. The paper presents a dashboard of the institutional set-up of ALMP provision in 43 OECD and EU countries, which classifies the ALMP systems of different countries according to their organisational set-up (i.e. division of responsibilities between key stakeholders), their regulatory set-up (i.e. key legislation regulating ALMP provision) and their capacity to deliver employment support services (i.e. resources available). Classification-JEL: J08; H11; H50 Keywords: activation, active labour market policies, labour market institutions Creation-Date: 2021-09-14 Number: 262 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:262-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Julie Lassébie Author-Name: Luca Marcolin Author-Name: Marieke Vandeweyer Author-Name: Benjamin Vignal Title: Speaking the same language: A machine learning approach to classify skills in Burning Glass Technologies data Abstract: This report presents a methodology to classify skill requirements in online job postings into a pre-existing expert-driven taxonomy of broader skill categories. The proposed approach uses a semi-supervised Machine Learning algorithm and relies on the actual meaning and definition of the skills. It allows for the classification of more than 17 000 unique skill keywords contained in the Burning Glass dataset into 61 categories. The outcome of the classification exercise is validated using O*NET information on skills by occupations, and by benchmarking the results of some empirical descriptive exercises against the existing literature. Compared to a manual classification, the proposed approach organises large amounts of skills information in an analytically tractable form, and with considerable savings in time and human resources. Classification-JEL: C45; C55; J23; J24; J63 Creation-Date: 2021-11-11 Number: 263 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:263-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Antonin Bergeaud Author-Name: Clément Malgouyres Author-Name: Clément Mazet-Sonilhac Author-Name: Sara Signorelli Title: Technological change and domestic outsourcing Abstract: Domestic outsourcing has grown substantially in developed countries over the past two decades. This paper addresses the question of the technological drivers of this phenomenon by studying the impact of the staggered diffusion of broadband internet in France during the 2000s. Our results confirm that broadband technology increases firm productivity and the relative demand for high-skill workers. Further, we show that broadband internet led firms to outsource some non-core occupations to service contractors, both in the low and high-skill segments. In both cases, we find that employment related to these occupations became increasingly concentrated in firms specializing in these activities, and was less likely to be performed in-house within firms specialized in other activities. As a result, after the arrival of broadband internet, establishments become increasingly homogeneous in their occupational composition. Finally, we provide suggestive evidence that high-skill workers experience salary gains from being outsourced, while low-skill workers lose out. Classification-JEL: G14; G21; O33 Keywords: broadband, Firm Organisation, Labour Market, Outsourcing Creation-Date: 2021-11-15 Number: 264 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:264-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexandre Georgieff Author-Name: Raphaela Hyee Title: Artificial intelligence and employment: New cross-country evidence Abstract: Recent years have seen impressive advances in artificial intelligence (AI) and this has stoked renewed concern about the impact of technological progress on the labour market, including on worker displacement.This paper looks at the possible links between AI and employment in a cross-country context. It adapts the AI occupational impact measure developed by Felten, Raj and Seamans (2018[1]; 2019[2]) – an indicator measuring the degree to which occupations rely on abilities in which AI has made the most progress – and extends it to 23 OECD countries. The indicator, which allows for variations in AI exposure across occupations, as well as within occupations and across countries, is then matched to Labour Force Surveys, to analyse the relationship with employment.Over the period 2012-2019, employment grew in nearly all occupations analysed. Overall, there appears to be no clear relationship between AI exposure and employment growth. However, in occupations where computer use is high, greater exposure to AI is linked to higher employment growth. The paper also finds suggestive evidence of a negative relationship between AI exposure and growth in average hours worked among occupations where computer use is low.While further research is needed to identify the exact mechanisms driving these results, one possible explanation is that partial automation by AI increases productivity directly as well as by shifting the task composition of occupations towards higher value-added tasks. This increase in labour productivity and output counteracts the direct displacement effect of automation through AI for workers with good digital skills, who may find it easier to use AI effectively and shift to non-automatable, higher-value added tasks within their occupations. The opposite could be true for workers with poor digital skills, who may not be able to interact efficiently with AI and thus reap all potential benefits of the technology. Classification-JEL: J21; J23; J24; O33 Keywords: artificial intelligence, employment Creation-Date: 2021-12-15 Number: 265 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:265-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Annelore Verhagen Title: Opportunities and drawbacks of using artificial intelligence for training Abstract: Technological developments are one of the major forces behind the need for retraining, but they can also be part of the solution. In particular, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to increase training participation, including among currently underrepresented groups, by lowering some of the barriers to training that people experience and by increasing motivation to train. Moreover, certain AI solutions for training may improve the alignment of training to labour market needs, and reduce bias and discrimination in the workplace. In order to realise the benefits of AI for training and ensure that it yields benefits for all, it will be necessary to address potential drawbacks in terms of changing skills requirements, inequalities in access to data, technology and infrastructure and important ethical issues. Finally, even when these drawbacks can be addressed, the introduction and expansion of AI tools for training is constrained by the supply of AI skills in the workforce and the availability of scientific evidence regarding the benefits of AI tools for training and whether they are cost-effective. Classification-JEL: I20; J24; M53; O15; O33 Keywords: Adult learning, AI, Artificial Intelligence, Skills, Training Creation-Date: 2021-12-13 Number: 266 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:266-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kristine Langenbucher Author-Name: Matija Vodopivec Title: Paying for results: Contracting out employment services through outcome-based payment schemes in OECD countries Abstract: OECD countries deliver publicly-funded employment services through different institutional arrangements. While in most OECD countries the majority of such services are delivered by public employment services, in two in five OECD and EU countries (or regions) they are partly or fully contracted out to external providers, including for-profit and not-for-profit entities. Contracting out employment services to outside providers offers many potential benefits: an increased flexibility to scale capacity in line with changes in unemployment, the possibility of offering services more cost-effectively, the option to better tailor services through the use of specialised service providers and the possibility to offer jobseekers choice of providers. However, achieving these benefits will depend on the actual design and monitoring of the contracting arrangements that are put in place. Focusing on the job brokerage, counselling and case-management employment services typically provided by public agencies, this paper reviews the experiences of OECD countries that have contracted out employment services through outcome-based payment schemes. It highlights the need to carefully consider questions related to the design and implementation of this form of contracting: fostering competition amongst potential providers, setting appropriate minimum service requirements and prices for different client groups, and ensuring the accountability of providers through monitoring and evaluations. These issues are discussed based on country examples, which are also detailed in factsheets contained in the online annex of the paper. Classification-JEL: J68; L33 Keywords: active labour market programmes, contracting out, employment services, outcome-based payments, private providers, public employment service, quasi-markets Creation-Date: 2022-01-18 Number: 267 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:267-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Andrea Salvatori Title: The impact of the COVID-19 crisis across different socio-economic groups and the role of job retention schemes - The case of Switzerland Abstract: This paper analyses the impact of the COVID-19 crisis across socio-economic groups in Switzerland and the role played by its short-time work scheme during the first year of the crisis until the end of 2020. To this end, it compares changes in hours worked for different socio-groups in Switzerland and other OECD countries, and then documents differences across groups in the use of short time work and in the risk of job loss. Finally, the paper investigates differences between groups of short-time work participants in terms of the reduction in working time, job search behavior and the risk of subsequent job loss. The evidence so far suggests that the Swiss short time work scheme as it operated during the first year of the COVID-19 crisis was fit for purpose. Classification-JEL: J01; J08; J30 Creation-Date: 2022-01-20 Number: 268 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:268-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Diana Horvath Author-Name: Francesca Borgonovi Title: Global warming, pollution and cognitive developments: The effects of high pollution and temperature levels on cognitive ability throughout the life course Abstract: Global warming and air pollution threaten human health, economic prosperity and human capital accumulation. The current review presents empirical findings on the effect of adverse environmental conditions on cognition, with a focus on pollution and high temperatures. The review takes a life-course perspective and quantifies both the direct and indirect effects of cumulative and transitory exposure to adverse conditions on cognition starting in-utero all the way to exposure in old age. The review makes clear that exposure to pollutants and high temperatures has economically meaningful costs for both individuals and societies, stemming from lower human capital accumulation. Furthermore, the evidence presented indicates that adverse environmental conditions have large distributional consequences, leading to widening disparities in educational opportunities both across countries and across socio-economic groups within-countries. The review discusses the mechanisms underpinning these effects and explores policies that have the potential to mitigate the negative impact of adverse conditions on cognition. Creation-Date: 2022-02-25 Number: 269 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:269-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Michela Meghnagi Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Michele Tuccio Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The recognition of prior learning: Validating general competences Abstract: The recognition of prior learning enhances upskilling and reskilling pathways by shortening the duration of training and offering more personalised learning pathways to adults. While the majority of recognition systems focus on professional and technical competences for the purpose of entering and progressing in the labour market, the recognition of adults’ general competences – i.e. cross-field competences that all individuals need for personal fulfilment and development – is less common, despite its clear importance for upskilling pathways, including its positive benefits for the individuals – for whom the validation of their past experiences often becomes a central source of motivation to engage in further learning – and for the society – for which recognition represents a stepping-stone to the spread of upskilling strategies. Thanks to new evidence gathered through desk research and interviews with numerous stakeholders throughout Europe, this paper sheds new light on the characteristics of recognition systems focusing on adults’ general competences. Classification-JEL: I24; J24; M53 Keywords: Adult learning, Competences, Education, Recognition of prior learning, Skills, Training, Validation Creation-Date: 2022-04-15 Number: 270 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:270-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernandez Author-Name: Raphaela Hyee Author-Name: Jongmi Lee Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Title: De-facto gaps in social protection for standard and non-standard workers: An approach for monitoring the accessibility and levels of income support Abstract: Social protection systems play a key stabilising role for individuals and societies, especially in the recent context of heightened uncertainties. This paper proposes a new empirical approach for quantifying the accessibility and value of income transfers following an earnings loss. The approach allows to estimate and monitor gaps in the accessibility and value of social transfers between so-called “standard” and “non-standard” workers. It first presents a methodology for assessing support levels for jobless individuals in specific circumstances that allows for comparisons across countries and over time. It then illustrates the approach using longitudinal survey data in 16 OECD countries. Classification-JEL: I38; J65; H55; H53; C31; C35 Keywords: social protection Creation-Date: 2022-05-12 Number: 271 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:271-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrea Salvatori Title: The effect of declining unemployment benefits on transitions to employment: Evidence from Belgium Abstract: This paper provides new evidence on the effect of the 2012 reform on flows from UB to employment. The reform increased the steepness of the time profile of unemployment benefits by raising the initial benefit, lowering its long-term level and increasing the number of steps in-between. The analysis finds no indication that the 2012 reform of the Belgian UB system led to an increase in flows towards employment or inactivity either in the aggregate or when comparing groups of workers whose benefits were affected to different extents. While the results of this paper and recent literature provide little ground in favour of a further accentuation of the steepness of the time profile of UB in Belgium, the system could likely benefit from a simplification of the rules that would enhance its readability for workers and facilitate its administration and evaluation. Classification-JEL: J08; J65; E24 Keywords: Unemployment, Unemployment benefits, Unemployment insurance Creation-Date: 2022-06-28 Number: 272 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:272-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Angelica Salvi del Pero Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Peter Wyckoff Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Ann Vourc'h Title: Using Artificial Intelligence in the workplace: What are the main ethical risks? Abstract: Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems are changing workplaces. AI systems have the potential to improve workplaces, but ensuring trustworthy use of AI in the workplace means addressing the ethical risks it can raise. This paper reviews possible risks in terms of human rights (privacy, fairness, agency and dignity); transparency and explainability; robustness, safety and security; and accountability. The paper also reviews ongoing policy action to promote trustworthy use of AI in the workplace. Existing legislation to ensure ethical workplaces must be enforced effectively, and serve as the foundation for new policy. Economy- and society-wide initiatives on AI, such as the EU AI Act and standard-setting, can also play a role. New workplace-specific measures and collective agreements can help fill remaining gaps. Classification-JEL: J01; J08; J2; J7; O3 Creation-Date: 2022-07-08 Number: 273 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:273-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Francesca Borgonovi Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Ottavia Brussino Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Helke Seitz Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Alice Bertoletti Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Author-Name: Federico Biagi Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Author-Name: Abdelfeteh Bitat Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Author-Name: Zbigniew Karpinski Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Author-Name: Marco Montanari Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Title: Young people’s environmental sustainability competence: Emotional, cognitive, behavioural, and attitudinal dimensions in EU and OECD countries Abstract: The paper is the first in a series of two papers mapping young people’s environmental sustainability competence in EU and OECD countries that were prepared as background for the forthcoming OECD Skills Outlook 2023 publication. The papers are the results of a collaboration between the OECD Centre for Skills and the European Commission - Joint Research Centre (Unit B4) on students’ environmental sustainability competence. The second paper is titled: ‘The environmental sustainability competence toolbox: From leaving a better planet to our children to leaving better children for our planet’. Classification-JEL: I20; J24; J31; Q50 Creation-Date: 2022-09-06 Number: 274 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:274-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Francesca Borgonovi Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Ottavia Brussino Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Helke Seitz Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Alice Bertoletti Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Author-Name: Federico Biagi Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Author-Name: Abdelfeteh Bitat Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Author-Name: Zbigniew Karpinski Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Author-Name: Marco Montanari Author-Workplace-Name: European Commission Title: The environmental sustainability competence toolbox: From leaving a better planet for our children to leaving better children for our planet Abstract: The paper is the second in a series of two papers mapping young people’s environmental sustainability competence in EU and OECD countries that were prepared as background for the forthcoming OECD Skills Outlook 2023 publication. The papers are the results of a collaboration between the OECD Centre for Skills and the European Commission - Joint Research Centre (Unit B4) on students’ environmental sustainability competence. The first paper is titled ‘Young people’s environmental sustainability competence: Emotional, cognitive, behavioural and attitudinal dimensions in EU and OECD countries. Classification-JEL: I20; J24; J31; Q50 Creation-Date: 2022-09-06 Number: 275 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:275-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ana Llena-Nozal Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernández Author-Name: Sarah Kups Title: Provision of social services in EU countries: Reform of the national framework for the provision of social services in Spain Abstract: This paper provides an overview of how social services are organised in European Union countries. With a special focus on Spain and countries with federal or semi-federal organisation, the paper starts by analysing social services from a legal perspective. It provides a comparative perspective on several concrete aspects of social services: sources of funding (national, regional, local, etc.), organization of service provision, expenditure, human resources, governance and coordination between institutions. The analysis finds that, despite differences across countries, there is no link between the existence of a comprehensive national social services laws and the comprehensiveness of the social service offer (the main differences concern family services and housing services in countries which consider housing as a right). There exist large differences in the contribution of central, regional, and local governments to social expenditure. Spending more on services does not necessarily imply spending less in cash transfers. Indeed, it appears that Nordic countries, that spend more on services as a share of their GDP, also spend more on cash transfers. Finally, the paper stresses the important role of the information technology and the horizontal and vertical coordination mechanisms to improve service quality and accessibility.
Ce document donne un aperçu de la manière dont les services sociaux sont organisés dans les pays de l'Union Européenne. Avec un accent particulier sur l'Espagne et les pays ayant une organisation fédérale ou semi-fédérale, le document commence par analyser les services sociaux d'un point de vue juridique. Il fournit une perspective comparative sur plusieurs aspects concrets des services sociaux : les sources de financement (nationales, régionales, locales, etc.), l'organisation de la prestation de services, les dépenses, les ressources humaines, la gouvernance et la coordination entre les institutions. L'analyse révèle que, malgré les différences entre les pays, il n'y a pas de lien entre l'existence d'une législation nationale globale sur les services sociaux et l'exhaustivité de l'offre de services sociaux (les principales différences concernent les services aux familles et les services de logement dans les pays qui considèrent le logement comme un droit). Il existe de grandes différences dans la contribution des gouvernements centraux, régionaux et locaux aux dépenses sociales. Dépenser plus pour les services n'implique pas nécessairement de dépenser moins pour les transferts en espèces. En effet, il apparaît que les pays nordiques, qui dépensent plus en services en pourcentage de leur PIB, dépensent également plus en transferts en espèces. Enfin, l'article souligne le rôle important des technologies de l'information et des mécanismes de coordination horizontale et verticale pour améliorer la qualité et l'accessibilité des services. Classification-JEL: H11; H53; H7; I31; I38 Keywords: Social services, Spain Creation-Date: 2022-09-23 Number: 276 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:276-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernández Author-Name: Sarah Kups Author-Name: Ana Llena-Nozal Title: Information technologies for social services in Spain: Reform of the national framework for the provision of social services in Spain Abstract: This paper sets out the OECD’s assessment of the information technology (IT) systems for social services used by the public administration in Spain. It shows that large disparities exist between and within regions in the use of IT tools. The lack of unified systems and the different ways to identify individuals and classify services makes the exchange of information extremely challenging. Improving the national data collection on social services highlights the importance of agreeing on a common terminology and deciding on a set of indicators as well as designing a flexible IT infrastructure to collect the information. Classification-JEL: H11; I38; L86 Keywords: information technologies, social services, spain Creation-Date: 2022-09-23 Number: 277 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:277-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrew Garin Author-Name: Emilie Jackson Author-Name: Dmitri Koustas Title: New gig work or changes in reporting?: Understanding self-employment trends in tax data Abstract: Rising self-employment rates in U.S. tax data that are absent in survey data have led to speculation that tax records capture a rise in new “gig” work that surveys miss. Drawing on the universe of Internal Revenue Service (IRS) tax returns, we show that trends in firm-reported payments to “gig” and other contract workers do not explain the rise in self-employment reported to the IRS; rather, that increase is driven by self-reported earnings of individuals in the EITC phase-in range. We isolate pure reporting responses from real labor supply responses by examining births of workers’ first children around an end-of-year cutoff for credit eligibility that creates exogenous variation in tax rates at the end of the tax year after labor supply decisions are already sunk. We find that exposing workers with sunk labor supply to negative marginal tax rates results in large increases in their propensity to self-report self-employment—only a small minority of which leads to bunching at kink-points. Consistent with pure strategic reporting behavior, we find no impact on reporting among taxpayers with no incentive to report additional income and no effects on firm-reported payments of any kind. Moreover, we find these reporting responses have grown over time as knowledge of tax incentives has become widespread. Quantitatively, our results suggest that as much as 59 percent of the growth in self-employment rates, and all counter-cyclicality, can be attributed to changes in reporting behavior that are independent of changes in the nature of work. Our findings suggest caution is warranted before deferring to administrative data over survey data when measuring labor market trends. Classification-JEL: H31; J21; H26 Creation-Date: 2022-09-23 Number: 278 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:278-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Clara Krämer Author-Name: Sandrine Cazes Title: Shaping the transition: Artificial intelligence and social dialogue Abstract: Rapid advances in the development and adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies provide new opportunities but also raise fears about disruptive labour market and workplace transitions. This working paper examines how social dialogue can shape the AI transition in beneficial ways for both workers and firms. It highlights that social dialogue can generally help foster inclusive labour markets and ease technological transitions, and presents new descriptive evidence together with ongoing initiatives from social partners showing that social dialogue has an important role to play in the AI transition as well. The paper also discusses how AI adoption may affect social dialogue itself, e.g. by adding new pressures on weakening labour relations systems and posing practical challenges to social partners, such as insufficient AI-related expertise and resources to respond to the AI transition. Based on these insights, the paper suggests a few measures for policy makers who would like to support social partners’ efforts in shaping the AI transition. Classification-JEL: J01; J08; J51; O3 Creation-Date: 2022-10-03 Number: 279 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:279-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kentaro Asai Author-Name: Francesca Borgonovi Author-Name: Sarah Wildi Title: Understanding how economic conditions and natural disasters shape environmental attitudes: A cross-country comparison to inform policy making Abstract: Understanding adults’ attitudes towards the environment is necessary to gauge the opportunities and challenges of creating effective and politically-feasible climate policies. Using data from the Wellcome Global Monitor 2020, the European Social Survey (Round 8), World Values Survey and EM-DAT, this paper examines how adults’ environmental attitudes vary within and across countries and details how environmental attitudes are associated with adults’ engagement in pro-environmental behaviours and support for environmentally-friendly policies. The paper explores whether the extent to which individuals prioritise the environment over the state of the economy or vice versa depends on individuals’ exposure to natural disasters or negative labour market conditions. Results indicate that people’s economic vulnerability and the sectors they work in impact their attitudes towards their environment and support for public policy. Furthermore, the findings suggest that increases in unemployment and exposure to natural disasters influence the extent to which individuals prioritise the environment. Classification-JEL: D78; H23; P48; Q54; Q58 Creation-Date: 2022-11-08 Number: 280 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:280-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Francesca Borgonovi Author-Name: Helke Seitz Author-Name: Irina Vogel Title: Swimming skills around the world: Evidence on inequalities in life skills across and within countries Abstract: Being able to swim empowers individuals to make choices, have agency, and be free to choose core aspects of their life, such as working safely on or near water. It is also associated with lifelong health benefits and reduces the risk of drowning. Using data from the Lloyd’s Register Foundation World Risk Poll 2019, this paper provides the first global estimates of adults’ ability to swim without assistance. Individuals in high-income countries are considerably more likely to report being able to swim without assistance than individuals in low-income countries. Disparities also exist within countries. In particular, women are less likely to be able to swim without assistance than men in virtually all countries, birth cohorts, and levels of education. Investing in reducing inequalities in life skills, such as swimming, can foster economic development and empowerment, especially in light of threats, such as climate change. Classification-JEL: I10; I12; I14; I24; J16; Z20 Creation-Date: 2022-11-15 Number: 281 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:281-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Julie Lassébie Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Title: What skills and abilities can automation technologies replicate and what does it mean for workers?: New evidence Abstract: This paper exploits novel data on the degree of automatability of approximately 100 skills and abilities collected through an original survey of experts in AI, and link them to occupations using information on skill and ability requirements extracted from O*NET. Similar to previous studies, this allows gauging the number of jobs potentially affected by automation and the workers who are most at risk of automation. The focus on the automatability of skills and abilities as opposed to entire occupations permits a direct assessment of the share of highly automatable and bottleneck tasks in each occupation. The study finds that thanks to advances in AI and robotics, several high-level cognitive skills can now be automated. However, high-skilled occupations continue to be less at risk of automation because they also require skills and abilities that remain important bottlenecks to automation. Furthermore, jobs at highest risk of automation will not disappear completely, as only 18 to 27% of skills and abilities required in these occupations are highly automatable. Rather, the organisation of work will change and workers in these jobs will need to retrain, as technologies replace workers for several tasks. Classification-JEL: J2; J21; J24; O33; O3 Keywords: AI, future of work, skills Creation-Date: 2022-12-13 Number: 282 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:282-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Cathal O’Donoghue Author-Workplace-Name: University of Galway Author-Name: Jules Linden Author-Workplace-Name: University of Galway Author-Name: Denisa Sologon Author-Workplace-Name: Luxembourg Institute of Socio-Economic Research Title: Who pays for higher carbon prices?: Illustration for Lithuania and a research agenda Abstract: This paper lays out an approach, and a research agenda, for assessing the impact of carbon pricing on household budgets. It relies on a rich set of available data and policy models and combines them in a way that is informative for mapping the gains and losses at the household level in the short term as countries transition to a low-carbon economy. After accounting for direct burdens from higher fuel prices, indirect effects from higher prices of goods other than fuel, and households’ behavioural responses, overall burdens are only mildly regressive. Recycling carbon-tax revenues back to households allows considerable scope for avoiding or cushioning losses for large parts of the population, and existing policy models can be used to design compensation measures that facilitate majority support for carbon tax packages. Classification-JEL: C8; D12; D31; H23; Q52 Keywords: Carbon tax, Carbon tax, climate change, inequality, revenue recycling Creation-Date: 2023-01-30 Number: 283 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:283-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Stijn Broecke Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Artificial intelligence and labour market matching Abstract: While still in its infancy, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly used in labour market matching, whether by private recruiters, public and private employment services, or online jobs boards and platforms. Applications range from writing job descriptions, applicant sourcing, analysing CVs, chat bots, interview schedulers, shortlisting tools, all the way to facial and voice analysis during interviews. While many tools promise to bring efficiencies and cost savings, they could also improve the quality of matching and jobseeker experience, and even identify and mitigate human bias. There are nonetheless some barriers to a greater adoption of these tools. Some barriers relate to organisation and people readiness, while others reflect concerns about the technology and how it is used, including: robustness, bias, privacy, transparency and explainability. The present paper reviews the literature and some recent policy developments in this field, while bringing new evidence from interviews held with key stakeholders. Classification-JEL: J01; J20; J60; J70 Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, Employment Services, Human Resources, Matching, Recruitment Creation-Date: 2023-01-30 Number: 284 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:284-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Chloé Touzet Title: Teleworking through the gender looking glass: Facts and gaps Abstract: This paper takes stock of existing data and research on the gendered dimension of teleworking, to foster efficient data collection and evidence-based monitoring of the phenomenon in the future. Analysing existing data on work from home, teleworking, teleworkability and preferences for work from home highlights the need for a consistently defined teleworking concept to be used across sources. A literature review of existing results finds mixed effects of teleworking on work-life balance inequalities, on the gender wage gap, and on gender disparities in career progression. Prevailing gender norms are likely to mediate the effect of teleworking on all three outcomes and should be a focus of future research. Classification-JEL: J01; J16; J22; J81; Y1 Keywords: Gender, Gender gaps, Hybrid work, Teleworkability, Teleworking Creation-Date: 2023-02-15 Number: 285 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:285-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Fabio Manca Title: Six questions about the demand for artificial intelligence skills in labour markets Abstract: This study responds to six key questions about the impact that the demand for Artificial Intelligence (AI) skills is having on labour markets. What are the occupations where AI skills are most relevant? How do different AI-relevant skills combine in job requirements? How quickly is the demand for AI-related skills diffusing across labour markets and what is the relationship between AI skill demands and the demand for cognitive skills across jobs? Finally, are AI skills leading to a wage premium and how different are the wage returns associated with AI and routine skills? To shed light on these aspects, this study leverages Natural Language Processing (NLP) algorithms to analyse the information contained in millions of job postings collected from the internet. Classification-JEL: I26; J01; O14; O33 Keywords: artificial intelligence, education, labour market, skills, technology Creation-Date: 2023-02-23 Number: 286 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:286-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Andrew Green Author-Name: Lucas Lamby Title: The supply, demand and characteristics of the AI workforce across OECD countries Abstract: This report provides representative, cross-country estimates of the artificial intelligence (AI) workforce across OECD countries. The AI workforce is defined as the subset of workers with skills in statistics, computer science and machine learning who could actively develop and maintain AI systems. For countries that wish to be at the forefront of AI development, understanding the AI workforce is crucial to building and nurturing a talent pipeline, and ensuring that those who create AI reflect the diversity of society. This report uses data from online job vacancies to measure the within-occupation intensity of AI skill demand. The within-occupation AI intensity is then weighted to employment by occupation in labour force surveys to provide estimates of the size and growth of the AI workforce over time. Classification-JEL: J21; J23; J24; J31; J44 Keywords: Artificial Intelligence Creation-Date: 2023-02-23 Number: 287 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:287-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Marguerita Lane Author-Name: Morgan Williams Author-Name: Stijn Broecke Title: The impact of AI on the workplace: Main findings from the OECD AI surveys of employers and workers Abstract: New OECD surveys of employers and workers in the manufacturing and finance sectors of seven countries shed new light on the impact that Artificial Intelligence has on the workplace —an under-researched area to date due to lack of data. The findings suggest that both workers and their employers are generally very positive about the impact of AI on performance and working conditions. However, there are also concerns, including about job loss—an issue that should be closely monitored. The surveys also indicate that, while many workers trust their employers when it comes to the implementation of AI in the workplace, more can be done to improve trust. In particular, the surveys show that both training and worker consultation are associated with better outcomes for workers. Classification-JEL: J2; J3; J5; J6 Creation-Date: 2023-03-27 Number: 288 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:288-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anna Milanez Title: The impact of AI on the workplace: Evidence from OECD case studies of AI implementation Abstract: How artificial intelligence (AI) will impact workplaces is a central question for the future of work, with potentially significant implications for jobs, productivity, and worker well-being. Yet, knowledge gaps remain in terms of how firms, workers, and worker representatives are adapting. This study addresses these gaps through a qualitative approach. It is based on nearly 100 case studies of the impacts of AI technologies on workplaces in the manufacturing and finance sectors of eight OECD countries. The study shows that, to date, job reorganisation appears more prevalent than job displacement, with automation prompting the reorientation of jobs towards tasks in which humans have a comparative advantage. Job quality improvements associated with AI – reductions in tedium, greater worker engagement, and improved physical safety – may be its strongest endorsement from a worker perspective. The study also highlights challenges – skill requirements and reports of increased work intensity – underscoring the need for policies to ensure that AI technologies benefit everyone. Classification-JEL: J2; J3; J5; J6 Creation-Date: 2023-03-27 Number: 289 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:289-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Marguerita Lane Author-Name: Morgan Williams Title: Defining and classifying AI in the workplace Abstract: This document serves both as a conceptual and practical guide for defining and classifying AI, in order to help stakeholders analyse and understand its impact on the workplace. It first discusses how AI can be defined and provides a selection of AI use cases to help stakeholders identify AI and distinguish it from other advanced technologies. The document then provides a framework for classifying AI according to its impact on the workplace, consisting of a set of questions intended to help stakeholders evaluate any AI application from a workplace perspective (either a priori or ex post) and to promote informed discussion so that AI is implemented in a way that empowers and complements workers and improves job quality, and that no one is left behind. Classification-JEL: J01; J08; J2; O14 Creation-Date: 2023-03-28 Number: 290 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:290-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Francesca Borgonovi Author-Name: Justine Hervé Author-Name: Helke Seitz Title: Not lost in translation: The implications of machine translation technologies for language professionals and for broader society Abstract: The paper discusses the implications of recent advances in artificial intelligence for knowledge workers, focusing on possible complementarities and substitution between machine translation tools and language professionals. The emergence of machine translation tools could enhance social welfare through enhanced opportunities for inter-language communication but also create new threats because of persisting low levels of accuracy and quality in the translation output. The paper uses data on online job vacancies to map the evolution of the demand for language professionals between 2015 and 2019 in 10 countries and illustrates the set of skills that are considered important by employers seeking to hire language professionals through job vacancies posted on line. Classification-JEL: J21; J23; J28; Z13 Creation-Date: 2023-03-30 Number: 291 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:291-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Luca Marcolin Author-Name: Glenda Quintini Title: Measuring skill gaps in firms: the PIAAC Employer Module Abstract: This paper introduces the Employer Module of the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), a new OECD survey designed to measure the imbalance between the supply of and demand for the skills needed in the workplace (skill gaps), and how this relates to companies’ business strategy and hiring, training and human resource practices. The document first describes the added value of collecting such data, and the different streams of economic research it can contribute to. It then shows how the Module can complement worker-level information on skill imbalances collected in the OECD Survey of Adult Skills. Lastly, it presents the key technical features of the survey, including the questionnaire’s conceptual development, the units of observation and coverage, the mode of administration, and the requirements for data cleaning and validation. Classification-JEL: C81; C83; J24; L23; M5 Creation-Date: 2023-04-24 Number: 292 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:292-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Michele Tuccio Author-Name: Katharine Mullock Author-Name: Patricia Navarro-Palau Author-Name: Erika Xiomara Chaparro Perez Title: The OECD Skills Profiling Tool: A new instrument to improve career decisions Abstract: This paper documents the development and piloting of the OECD Skills Profiling Tool. The OECD Skills Profiling Tool assesses three types of skills: occupation-specific skills; foundational skills (literacy, numeracy and digital skills); and a set of noncognitive skills using academically validated self-reported tests. After completion of the assessment, the OECD Skills Profiling Tool generates two sets of results: a personalised skill profile, which can be benchmarked against other users; and a list of suggested occupations that make use of those skills. In December 2021, 270 users and 38 career guidance counsellors in Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru tested the OECD Skills Profiling Tool. This paper describes the selection of assessment instruments, the methodology used to generate the results provided by the OECD Skills Profiling Tool and the outcomes of the piloting phase of the tool. Classification-JEL: I24; J24; J63 Creation-Date: 2023-06-13 Number: 293 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:293-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Gabriele Marconi Author-Name: Loris Vergolini Author-Name: Francesca Borgonovi Title: The demand for language skills in the European labour market: Evidence from online job vacancies Abstract: This paper investigates the demand for language skills using data on online job vacancies in 27 European Union member countries and the United Kingdom in 2021. Evidence indicates that although Europe remains a linguistically diverse labour market, knowing English confers unique advantages in certain occupations. Across countries included in the analyses, a knowledge of English was explicitly required in 22% of all vacancies and English was the sixth most required skill overall. A knowledge of German, Spanish, French and Mandarin Chinese was explicitly demanded in between 1% and 2% of all vacancies. One in two positions advertised on line for managers or professionals required some knowledge of English, on average across European Union member countries and across OECD countries in the sample. This compares with only one in ten positions for skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers and among elementary occupations. Classification-JEL: J20; J24; R10 Creation-Date: 2023-06-14 Number: 294 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:294-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Mark Keese Author-Name: Luca Marcolin Title: Labour and social policies for the green transition: A conceptual framework Abstract: This study sets out a conceptual framework to analyse the impact of climate change and greenhouse gases mitigation efforts on the labour market, migration flows and people’s health, as well as the most important policy levers that can cushion potential negative impacts and maximise opportunities from the climate transition. Classification-JEL: I18; J08; J2; Q52; Q54; F22 Creation-Date: 2023-07-06 Number: 295 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:295-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Eliza-Jane Pearsall Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico Author-Name: Edoardo Magalini Title: Unemployment benefit reforms to support employment and inclusiveness in the United States: Impacts of the Pandemic Unemployment Assistance Abstract: This paper analyses the impact of Pandemic Unemployment Assistance (PUA) extensions on jobseeker households in selected US states and examines how these extensions compare to the pre-pandemic policies. The analysis finds that PUA extensions increase benefit duration for all jobseekers, but due to interactions between other government benefits, this translates to significant increases in benefit generosity only for jobseekers without children. This has an impact on the financial incentives to take up employment, although incentives are still above the OECD average. PUA extensions have little impact for people who have been unemployed for a very long time, and jobseekers with no recent contribution history. PUA extensions also have minimal impact on jobless families with children who continue to receive less support compared to other OECD countries. Classification-JEL: C63; I38; J65; H55 Creation-Date: 2023-07-25 Number: 296 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:296-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Francesca Borgonovi Author-Name: Elisa Lanzi Author-Name: Helke Seitz Author-Name: Ruben Bibas Author-Name: Jean Fouré Author-Name: Hubert Plisiecki Author-Name: Laura Atarody Title: The effects of the EU Fit for 55 package on labour markets and the demand for skills Abstract: This paper quantifies changes in employment and the demand for skills in the European Union following the implementation of Fit for 55 policies. Between 2019 and 2030, the economy is projected to grow by 1.3% in the Fit for 55 scenario (3% in a Baseline scenario without the Fit for 55 policies). Employment growth is projected to be lower in the Fit for 55 than the Baseline scenario. Employment in the Fit for 55 scenario is projected to decrease by 3% for blue collar and farm workers (2% in the Baseline) and increase by 4 5% for other occupations (5-6% in the Baseline). The most demanded skills following the implementation of Fit for 55 will be those related to inter personal communication and the use of digital technologies, whereas the demand for skills related to the use of traditional tools and technologies is projected to decline. Anticipating changes in employment and the demand for skills as well as the socio-demographic profile of those most affected can facilitate the design of upskilling and reskilling efforts and promote the reallocation of workers across sectors and occupations. Classification-JEL: C68; J21; J24; J44; Q43; Q54 Keywords: climate mitigation, computable general equilibrium models, employment, skills Creation-Date: 2023-08-02 Number: 297 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:297-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen Author-Name: Mateo Montenegro Author-Name: Ana Sofia Pessoa Title: Minimum wages in a dual labour market: Evidence from the 2019 minimum-wage hike in Spain Abstract: This paper provides an assessment of the 2019 minimum-wage hike in Spain, which increased the minimum wage by 22% and directly concerned 7% of dependent employees. The assessment is based on an individual-level analysis that follows the outcomes of workers that were employed in the year before the reform over time. Among directly affected workers, the hike in the minimum wage increased full-time equivalent monthly earnings by on average 5.8% and reduced employment by -0.6%. The wage effects are stronger for workers on open-ended contracts, while the employment effects are stronger for workers on fixed-term contracts. Classification-JEL: J3; J4; J8 Keywords: employment protection, fixed-term contracts, labour market duality, wage-setting, wage-shifting Creation-Date: 2023-09-18 Number: 298 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:298-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jonas Fluchtmann Author-Name: Violetta van Veen Author-Name: Willem Adema Title: Fertility, employment and family policy: A cross-country panel analysis Abstract: This paper analyses the association of labour market outcomes and family policies with fertility trends between 2002 and 2019 in 26 OECD countries. While the average age of mothers at birth of their children continued to increase over the entire period, these years have been marked by an initial catching-up of total fertility rates after marked declines in previous decades. Furthermore, after peaking in 2008, total fertility rates declined substantially, fueling concerns about demographic, economic and fiscal implications. Using panel data models and building on prior work, this paper links these changes in fertility outcomes to changes in the labour market position of men and women as well as with changes in family policies, such as parental leaves and early childhood education and care. This paper provides insights into the complex dynamics between family policies, employment and fertility, shedding light on the factors influencing overall population dynamics in OECD countries. Classification-JEL: J13; J18; J21; C33 Keywords: Birth rates, Employment, Family Policy, Fertility Creation-Date: 2023-09-21 Number: 299 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:299-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sofia Dromundo Author-Name: Marius Lüske Author-Name: Michele Tuccio Title: Innovative approaches to tackle long-term unemployment Abstract: Long-term unemployment remains a structural challenge for most OECD countries. Despite major efforts to address this issue, the efficiency and effectiveness of many existing active labour market policies are limited for jobseekers who face major vulnerabilities and have no ties to the labour market. Therefore, there is a need for innovative approaches that specifically address the barriers faced by long-term unemployed individuals in their labour market (re)integration. This paper discusses examples of promising practices from across Europe, which can serve as a source of inspiration for policymakers seeking new approaches to assist vulnerable jobseekers in overcoming the challenge of long-term unemployment. Classification-JEL: E24; J24; J64 Keywords: active labour market policies, innovative approaches, long-term unemployed, unemployment Creation-Date: 2023-11-21 Number: 300 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:300-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Matija Vodopivec Title: Raising the bar: Designing and implementing innovative contracted-out employment services in OECD countries Abstract: Two out of five OECD countries contract out some of the job brokerage and counselling functions of publicly financed employment services using outcome-based payment models. This paper examines several important aspects related to the design and implementation of such outsourcing. First, innovative payment models can improve incentives for external providers to offer training and more effective services for hard-to-place clients. Second, providing forward guidance to providers and accounting for contingencies can mitigate their risks, e.g. of being underpaid relative to expenses incurred, thus lowering service costs. Third, letting individuals choose a provider can result in services that are better tailored and foster ongoing competition between providers. Finally, automating data exchange can, somewhat paradoxically, improve data privacy and data protection while enabling new payment models. These and related findings are discussed with country examples based on desk research and interviews with stakeholders in several OECD countries. The paper builds on work conducted in the project “Reforming the Swedish Public Employment Service”, which was carried out with funding from the European Union via the Technical Support Instrument and was implemented by the OECD in cooperation with the European Commission's Directorate-General for Structural Reform Support. Classification-JEL: J68; L33 Keywords: active labour market programmes, contracting out, employment services, outcome-based payments, private providers, public employment service Creation-Date: 2023-11-22 Number: 301 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:301-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ricardo Espinoza Author-Name: Nerea Martinez-Yarza Title: Quality matters: A comparative analysis of quality assurance mechanisms in adult education and training in OECD countries Abstract: In recent years, provision of relevant up-skilling and re-skilling opportunities for adults has become a necessity due to global megatrends affecting labour markets. As a result, countries are looking to strengthen these opportunities throughout the life course. The successful deployment of these initiatives requires a coherent set of policies, with quality assurance being critically important. This paper provides an overview of quality assurance mechanisms from the perspective of the 38 OECD member countries. It proposes a framework to characterise and compare the governance, processes and outcomes of these mechanisms. The paper's contribution is to facilitate understanding of quality assurance across OECD countries, presenting a visual cross-country mapping that classifies existing mechanisms. Classification-JEL: I21; I28; J24; J44 Creation-Date: 2023-12-15 Number: 302 Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:302-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Magdalena Burtscher Author-Name: Stefano Piano Author-Name: Benjamin Welby Title: Developing skills for digital government: A review of good practices across OECD governments Abstract:
Digital technologies are having a profound impact on economies, labour markets and societies. They also have the potential to transform government, by enabling the implementation of more accessible and effective services. To support a shift towards digital government, investment is needed in developing the skills of civil servants. This paper reviews good practices across OECD countries to foster skills for digital government. It presents different approaches in public administration to organising training activities as well as opportunities for informal learning. It also provides insights into how relevant skills can be identified through competence frameworks, how they can be assessed, and how learning opportunities can be evaluated.
Classification-JEL: J24; H83
Creation-Date: 2024-02-07
Number: 303
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:303-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Jonas Fluchtmann
Author-Workplace-Name: OECD
Author-Name: Mark Keese
Author-Workplace-Name: OECD
Author-Name: Willem Adema
Author-Workplace-Name: OECD
Title: Gender equality and economic growth: Past progress and future potential
Abstract: Despite women’s increased participation in the labour market significantly contributing to past economic growth, persistent gender gaps across OECD labour markets hinder full realization of the potential gains of women’s economic participation. This paper analyses the economic implications of these gaps and evaluates the potential for future growth through greater gender equality in labour market outcomes. Utilising two methodological frameworks, the paper first employs growth accounting to measure the contribution of women's employment to past economic growth. The paper then uses a simplified version of the OECD Long-Term Model in conjunction with projections on future labour force dynamics to estimate the impact of greater gender equality on the labour market. These analyses provide insight into the potentially significant economic benefits of closing persistent gender gaps across OECD countries.
Classification-JEL: J16; J21; O47
Creation-Date: 2024-03-11
Number: 304
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:304-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Dorothy Adams
Author-Workplace-Name: OECD
Author-Name: Hlodver Hakonarson
Author-Workplace-Name: OECD
Title: An integrated approach to service delivery for people with multiple and complex needs
Abstract: 
Increasingly, countries are integrating personalised public services to enhance access to, and the experience of those services to significantly improve outcomes for service users. Integrated services are particularly valuable for those with multiple and complex needs who require a range of tailored and, in some cases, specialised supports and services from more than one agency or service provider. Service specialisation can make it difficult for these service users to get the right mix of services and at the right time that best meet their needs. This paper provides a summary of how countries are integrating services to improve the lives and outcomes of care experienced by young people, people with disabilities, and people leaving prison. The paper is intended for policymakers who are seeking new or improved approaches to improving the outcomes of those who rely on personalised services.
Classification-JEL: Z18
Keywords: Social Issues/Migration/Health
Creation-Date: 2024-03-11
Number: 305
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:305-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Alexandre Georgieff
Title: Faces of joblessness in Switzerland: A people-centred perspective on employment barriers and policies
Abstract: Open unemployment and joblessness in Switzerland are low compared to OECD standards. Yet a comparatively high proportion of working-age individuals remain weakly attached to the labour market, with unstable jobs, or with limited working hours. As an initial step towards a possible in-depth project, this Faces of Joblessness feasibility study provides insight into the nature and incidence of the structural barriers that are likely to prevent individuals from fully engaging in employment and speculates on their possible links with underutilized employment potential. It shows that lack of recent work experience and substantial non-labour or partner income are two key employment barriers in Switzerland. Partner income can be a barrier for women in particular and might be one of the reasons why many women leave stable employment at childbearing age, alongside low supply and high cost of early childhood education and care programs. Workers over 60 also represent a significant underutilized employment potential, as many have taken early retirement. Non-EU migrant are particularly exposed to potential labour market difficulties at younger age, and many of them have low levels of education, poor professional skills or limited work experience. This study also suggests that many jobless are confronted with complex and inter-related employment obstacles.
Classification-JEL: C38; H31; J2; J6; J8
Creation-Date: 2024-03-19
Number: 306
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:306-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Vanda Almeida
Author-Name: Claire Hoffmann
Author-Name: Sebastian Königs
Author-Name: Ana Moreno Monroy
Author-Name: Mauricio Salazar-Lozada
Author-Name: Javier Terrero-Dávila
Title: Geographic inequalities in accessibility of essential services
Abstract: People’s ability to access essential services is key to their labour market and social inclusion. An important dimension of accessibility is physical accessibility, but little cross-country evidence exists on how close people live to the services facilities they need. This paper helps to address this gap, focusing on three types of essential services: Public Employment Services, primary schools and Early Childhood Education and Care. It collects and maps data on the location of these services for a selection of OECD countries and links them with data on population and transport infrastructure. This allows to compute travel times to the nearest service facility and to quantify disparities in accessibility at the regional level. The results highlight substantial inequalities in accessibility of essential services across and within countries. Although large parts of the population can easily reach these services in most countries, some people are relatively underserved. This is particularly the case in non-metropolitan and low-income regions. At the same time, accessibility seems to be associated with the potential demand for these services once accounting for other regional economic and demographic characteristics.
Classification-JEL: H00; I24; J01; O18; R12
Creation-Date: 2024-04-18
Number: 307
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:307-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Stijn Broecke
Title: Offshoring, Reshoring, and the Evolving Geography of Jobs: A Scoping Paper
Abstract: While the second half of the 20th century was characterised by a growing integration of the global economy, in recent years there have been growing calls for protectionism and reshoring. At the same time, COVID-19 resulted in higher levels of remote working, which showed that many jobs could be done from anywhere and could, in theory, be offshored. The future of offshoring and reshoring is therefore highly uncertain. This document summarises some of the key issues and trends with regards to offshoring and reshoring. It then sets out a research agenda which would result in a better understanding the future of offshoring and reshoring and their impact on domestic labour markets, which would help policy makers in OECD countries plan for the changes that lie ahead.
Classification-JEL: J61; J68; J2
Keywords: Jobs, Offshoring, Reshoring
Creation-Date: 2024-04-27
Number: 308
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:308-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Willem Adema
Author-Name: Ali Bargu
Author-Name: Maxime Ladaique
Author-Name: Daniele Pacifico
Author-Name: Eliza-Jane Pearsall
Author-Name: Dirk Neumann
Title: Étude comparative des dépenses et du financement de la protection sociale en France et en Allemagne
Abstract: Les dépenses sociales publiques ont triplé en 60 ans, atteignant 21 % du PIB en 2022, mais avec des variations significatives entre les pays de l'OCDE. Cette hausse à long terme est liée au développement des États-providence, au vieillissement de la population et à une succession de chocs économiques qui ont entraîné des augmentations progressives des ratios de dépenses sociales par rapport au PIB, dont ils ne se sont que partiellement remis. Ce document compare les systèmes de protection sociale en France et en Allemagne, en analysant les règles institutionnelles, l'efficacité des programmes, les sources de financement, et l'impact des politiques fiscales et sociales sur différents types de familles. Il évalue également les réformes depuis 2015, en se concentrant sur les revenus des ménages, les incitations au travail et les coûts de la main-d'œuvre.
Classification-JEL: H2; H52
Creation-Date: 2024-09-13
Number: 309
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:309-FR
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Cesar Barreto
Author-Name: Jonas Fluchtmann
Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen
Author-Name: Stefano Lombardi
Author-Name: Patrick Bennett
Author-Name: Antoine Bertheau
Author-Name: Winnie Chan
Author-Name: Andrei Gorshkov
Author-Name: Jonathan Hambur
Author-Name: Nick Johnstone
Author-Name: Benjamin Lochner
Author-Name: Jordy Meekes
Author-Name: Tahsin Mehdi
Author-Name: Balázs Muraközy
Author-Name: Gulnara Nolan
Author-Name: Kjell Salvanes
Author-Name: Oskar Nordström Skans
Author-Name: Rune Vejlin
Title: The “clean energy transition” and the cost of job displacement in energy-intensive industries
Abstract: This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the costs of job displacement in energy-intensive industries in selected OECD countries. Based on harmonised linked employer-employee data from 14 OECD countries, we estimate the effect of job displacement in three energy-intensive industries, namely energy supply, heavy manufacturing and transport, compared to other industries. We find that workers displaced from the energy supply and heavy manufacturing, experience larger earnings losses compared with workers in non-energy-intensive and transport sectors. Larger earnings losses mainly result from weaker re-employment outcomes in terms of wages and job instability but also challenges with finding another job. They reflect significant differences in the composition of workers and firms in energy supply and heavy manufacturing and the rest of the economy. Displaced workers in these sectors tend to be older, are less skilled and more likely to be previously employed in high-wage firms.
Classification-JEL: J31; J63; Q43
Keywords: dismissal, just transition, linked employer-employee data
Creation-Date: 2024-09-27
Number: 310
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:310-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Valérie Frey
Author-Name: Lyydia Alajääskö
Author-Name: Jasmin Thomas
Title: Gendered perceptions of social protection across OECD countries
Abstract: Reflecting their weaker labour force attachment and lower earnings, women consistently report feeling greater economic insecurity than men across countries in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Results from the cross-national OECD Risks that Matter Survey illustrate that similar gender gaps emerge in perceptions of social protection systems: women are far less confident than men in their ability to access adequate benefits and services when they need them, both in working age and old age. This perceived inaccessibility likely reflects gender gaps in “hassle costs” associated with social programme applications and intra-household allocations of administrative burden, but it also likely reflects women’s lower social security contributions. This paper illustrates gender gaps in the design of social programmes and suggests ways by which governments can better mainstream gender when improving the accessibility and adequacy of social protection.
Creation-Date: 2024-12-12
Number: 311
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:311-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll
Author-Workplace-Name: OECD
Title: Financing social protection in OECD countries: Role and uses of revenue earmarking
Abstract: In many OECD countries, the majority of social spending is financed from earmarked revenues, and a large share of revenues earmarked for any type of government spending is used for social purposes. Tying revenue sources to specific expenditure categories has a number of potential advantages and weaknesses. These trade-offs depend on the design and implementation of earmarking, and they can become more apparent when fiscal space is tight. In practice, provisions for linking revenues to programme spending differ widely, and they vary also by social protection branch within countries. This paper compares financing patterns and trends and provides examples of earmarking for social insurance and assistance programmes. It concludes with a discussion of carbon pricing as a potential source of financing social support programmes.
Classification-JEL: H20; H50; I00; P52
Keywords: social protection
Creation-Date: 2024-10-11
Number: 312
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:312-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Marco G. Palladino
Author-Name: Antoine Bertheau
Author-Name: Cesar Barreto
Author-Name: Dogan Gülümser
Author-Name: Alexander Hijzen
Author-Name: Anne Sophie Lassen
Author-Name: Balázs Muraközy
Author-Name: Oskar Nordström Skans
Title: The role of bargaining and discrimination in the gender wage gap in France: A cross-country perspective
Abstract: This paper contributes to a better understanding of the role of bargaining and discrimination in the gender wage gap in France and four other European countries using comprehensive linked employer-employee data. The role of bargaining and discrimination is analysed by focusing on systematic differences in wage-setting practices between men and women in the same firm through the estimation of gender-specific firm wage premia. The paper provides three key insights. First, bargaining and discrimination account for only a small part of the gender wage gap in France. Second, the component of the gender wage gap that can be attributed to bargaining and discrimination is higher in high-wage firms in all countries considered. Third, cross-country differences in the importance of bargaining and discrimination in the gender wage gap reflect both systematic differences in wage-setting practices within firms and imperfections in the product market that generate persistent rents.
Classification-JEL: J16; J31; P52
Keywords: gender wage gap, firm wage premium, bargaining, rent-sharing
Creation-Date: 2024-11-13
Number: 315
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:315-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Laura Reznikova
Author-Name: Rafael Labanino
Author-Name: Darragh McKee Mathews
Title: Pooling our strengths: The power of stakeholder engagement in education and skills policy
Abstract: Designing and implementing impactful education and skills policies is becoming increasingly challenging. Policymakers must navigate the consequences of the digital and green transitions, demographic pressures, and other global megatrends. Engaging with stakeholders enables policymakers to collect valuable insights on the real-world impacts of education and skills policies, and increase political legitimacy of ambitious reforms. However, there is a lack of practical, coherent overview of the range of potential engagement approaches and knowledge of existing practices across countries to learn from. This Working Paper aims to fill this gap by constructing a typology of stakeholder engagement approaches in education and skills policy. It also presents the results of a mapping exercise undertaken by the OECD, describing for the first time the range and key characteristics of stakeholder engagement bodies in education and skills policy in OECD member and accession countries, before outlining possible avenues for further research.
Creation-Date: 2024-12-20
Number: 316
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:316-EN
Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0
Author-Name: Raphaela Hyee
Author-Name: Herwig Immervoll
Author-Name: Rodrigo Fernández
Author-Name: Jongmi Lee
Author-Name: Karl Handscomb
Title: How reliable are social safety nets in situations of acute economic need?: Extended estimates for 14 OECD countries
Abstract: This paper presents an empirical assessment of the accessibility and levels of ‘safety-net’ benefits. Complementing existing studies, which often adopt an institutional focus or compare legal entitlement rules, it employs a people-centred perspective, using data on cash support that people receive in practice. The approach is illustrated by comparing minimum-income benefits (MIB) and other non-contributory transfers across 14 OECD countries in Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania. Accessibility differs widely across countries and family circumstances. When out of work and in the bottom income decile, more than 4 out of 5 single-person households reported receiving MIB in Australia, France, and the United Kingdom, compared to 1 in 3 in Italy. In some countries, even very low earnings made benefit receipt unlikely, weakening financial work incentives. Typical benefit payouts to low-income claimants amounted to 15% of median household incomes or less in Greece, Korea, and the United States, but exceeded 40% in Belgium and the United Kingdom. Support from non-contributory transfers varied across groups, with countries variously focusing support on people with health problems (Italy) or on families with children (Germany, Greece, United States).
Classification-JEL: C31; D31; H31; H53; I38; C53
Keywords: minimum income, poverty, social assistance, social benefits, social protection, social protection floor
Creation-Date: 2024-12-20
Number: 317
Handle: RePEc:oec:elsaab:317-EN