Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Climate and Carbon: Aligning Prices and Policies Abstract: The international community has agreed to limit the average global temperature increase to no more than 2ºC above pre-industrial levels. This will require a gradual phase-out of fossil fuel emissions by the second half of this century. This report brings together lessons learned from OECD analysis on carbon pricing and climate policies. It recommends that governments ensure coherent policies surrounding the gradual phase-out of fossil fuel emissions and consistent signals to consumers, producers and investors alike. A key component of this approach is putting an explicit price on every tonne of CO2 emitted. Explicit pricing instruments, however, may not cover all sources of emissions and will often need to be complemented by other policies that effectively put an implicit price on emissions. But the policies must be mutually supportive and as cost-effective as possible, both on their own and as a package. In addition, tax exemptions and fossil-fuel subsidies that undermine the transition towards zero carbon solutions must be reformed. Finally, the report highlights the issues of competitiveness, distributional impacts and communication as key elements in implementing climate policy reform.

Climat et carbone : rapprochement de la politique et des prix
La communauté internationale s’est accordée sur la nécessité de maintenir l'augmentation de la température moyenne de la planète en deçà de 2º C par rapport au niveau de l'ère préindustrielle. Cela nécessitera une élimination progressive des émissions liées aux combustibles fossiles durant la seconde moitié de ce siècle. Ce rapport rassemble les enseignements tirés de l’analyse de l’OCDE sur la tarification du carbone et les politiques en matière de changement climatique. Il recommande aux gouvernements de s’assurer de la cohérence à la fois des politiques visant à la suppression progressive des émissions liées aux combustibles fossiles, et des signaux envoyés aux consommateurs, producteurs et investisseurs. Un élément clé de cette approche consiste à établir de façon explicite un prix pour chaque tonne de CO2 émise. Toutes les sources d’émissions ne peuvent cependant pas se prêter à une telle approche et il sera nécessaire de faire appel à d’autres mesures établissant un prix du carbone de manière implicite. Les politiques mises en place doivent se soutenir mutuellement et offrir un bon rapport coût/efficacité, à la fois individuellement et collectivement. De plus, il est nécessaire de réformer les exemptions fiscales et les subventions aux combustibles fossiles qui compromettent la transition vers des solutions décarbonées. Enfin, le rapport souligne le rôle clé des questions de compétitivité, des effets redistributifs, ainsi que l’importance de la communication pour mettre en oeuvre la réforme des politiques en matière de changement climatique. Creation-Date: 2013-10-09 Number: 1 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:1-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: The Swedish Tax on Nitrogen Oxide Emissions: Lessons in Environmental Policy Reform Abstract: Sweden was facing a serious soil acidification and water eutrophication problem caused partly by emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from combustion processes in transport, industry and power. In 1992, Sweden introduced a high tax on NOx emissions from large combustion sources (e.g. power plants, industrial plants, waste incinerators). The tax was accompanied by a refund according to the amount of energy generated. This ensures that facilities with low NOx emission intensitites are net beneficiaries of the scheme. Continuous monitoring of emissions was also made mandatory. The tax was designed to accelerate and stimulate investment in advanced combustion and pollution-abatement technologies and as a supplement to existing regulatory measures. Creation-Date: 2013-12-24 Number: 2 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:2-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Greening Household Behaviour: A review for Policy Makers Abstract: Personal behaviour and choices in daily life, from what we eat to how we get to work or heat our homes, have a significant – and growing – effect on the environment. But why are some households greener than others? And what factors motivate green household choices? Answering these questions is vital for helping governments design and target policies that promote “greener” behaviour. The OECD’s Environmental Policy and Individual Behaviour Change (EPIC) survey is designed to do just that. This large-scale household survey explores what drives household environmental behaviour and how policies may affect household decisions. It focuses on five areas in which households have significant environmental impact: energy, food, transport, waste and water. This policy paper is based on the second round of the EPIC survey, carried out in 2011 (the first was in 2008). The survey collected information from more than 12 000 households in Australia, Canada, Chile, France, Israel, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Creation-Date: 2014-12-17 Number: 3 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:3-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: The Lake Taupo Nitrogen Market in New Zealand: A Review for Policy Makers Abstract: Lake Taupo is New Zealand’s largest lake, and a national icon. Its pristine waters attract visitors from round the world for a multitude of water-based recreation and sight-seeing activities. It is also important to New Zealand’s indigenous peoples. In the late 1990s, scientific investigations by Environment Waikato (now the Waikato Regional Council), the regional authority responsible for environmental management in the Lake Taupo catchment, revealed that water quality in Lake Taupo was gradually declining. The research identified that nitrogen emissions were entering the lake from both natural processes and human activities, such as pastoral farming, urban runoff and wastewater (see Table 1). The total amount of nitrogen entering the lake was estimated at 1 360 tonnes annually. Of the 556 tonnes of manageable (i.e. human-induced) emissions, 510 tonnes were from pastoral farming. Lake Taupo is contained within a collapsed caldera formed from one of the world’s largest eruptions, which took place 26 000 years ago. The now dormant volcano has left a legacy of ejected pumice and ash over much of New Zealand’s North Island and in particular in the catchment of the lake. This underlying layer of pumice makes the soil structure in the lake’s catchment extremely permeable and allows the unrestricted movement of both water and contaminants into the water tables draining into the lake. Reducing contaminant inflows into the lake therefore needs to address the challenging issue of diffuse groundwater movements, which are largely unseen, and difficult to measure and predict. In some parts of the catchment, it can take more than 100 years for run-off nitrogen to reach the lake (Vant, 2008). Creation-Date: 2015-09-25 Number: 4 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:4-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Israel's Green Tax on Cars: Lessons in Environmental Policy Reform Abstract: In recent decades, Israel’s growing population and rising incomes have seen consumption increase substantially, bringing with it considerable pressure on the environment. One of the main environmental pressures is from the ever-increasing transport activity, especially the use of private vehicles. Although travelling in a private vehicle brings benefits to the individual using it, this entails costs to society as a whole. These social costs extend beyond the private costs of the car and the fuel borne by the car user, imposing a burden on public health and the environment. Transport involves noise, local air pollution, and contributes to climate change, congestion, accidents, and wear and tear to infrastructure. All these negatively affect public health and quality of life in general, a fact not taken into account when an individual chooses whether or not to buy a car. This is known as a “market failure”, because the price of a car does not fully reflect the social costs of using it. Governments can correct market failures like these through policies that ensure that the actual costs to society are incorporated within the price of a car, thus influencing consumers’ purchases. This paper describes how Israel developed an innovative scheme to encourage consumers to choose less polluting cars. The Green Tax scheme targets reductions in all polluting vehicle emissions, not only carbon dioxide (CO2). The paper outlines the design process, reflects on the challenges encountered and the environmental, economic and social impacts. It concludes by discussing the wider lessons that are raised for other governments seeking to tackle similar environmental problems. Creation-Date: 2016-07-19 Number: 5 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:5-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Green Investment Banks: Innovative Public Financial Institutions Scaling up Private, Low-carbon Investment Abstract: This Policy Paper describes the relatively new phenomenon of publicly-capitalised green investment banks and examines why they are being created and how they are mobilising private investment. It draws on the OECD report “Green Investment Banks: Scaling up Private Investment in Low-carbon, Climate-resilient Infrastructure". Creation-Date: 2017-01-31 Number: 6 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:6-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Making the Slovak Republic a more resource efficient economy: Country Study Abstract: The Slovak Republic is a country with a limited natural resource base, an important manufacturing sector and rising materials consumption. Coherent polices that aim at increasing resource efficiency and achieving green growth are vital for sustainable growth and increased prosperity. This paper identifies a number of options for improving resource efficiency in the Slovak Republic. Creation-Date: 2017-12-19 Number: 7 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:7-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Reforming agricultural subsidies to support biodiversity in Switzerland: Country Study Abstract: This paper analyses the reform of Switzerland’s agricultural policy framework, which reoriented subsidies to better target policy objectives, including for biodiversity. The paper outline the process involved in designing and implementing the reform as well as its environmental and socio-economic impacts. It also highlights the challenges encountered and concludes by discussing the wider lessons for other governments seeking to tackle similar challenges. The country study draws on the 2017 OECD report The Political Economy of Biodiversity Policy Reform. Creation-Date: 2017-12-19 Number: 8 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:8-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Sustaining Iceland’s fisheries through tradeable quotas: Country Study Abstract: This paper analyses the reform undertaken by Iceland to avert a looming crisis and restore fish stocks to sustainable levels. The paper outlines the process involved in designing and implementing this reform. It also reflects on the challenges encountered and the environmental, economic and social impacts of the reform. It concludes by discussing some wider lessons learned for other governments seeking to tackle similar environmental problems. This country study draws on the 2017 OECD report The Political Economy of Biodiversity Policy Reform. Creation-Date: 2017-12-19 Number: 9 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:9-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Sustainable Financing for Marine Ecosystem Services in Mauritania and Guinea-Bissau: Country Study Abstract: This Policy Paper summarises key messages from the case study on European Union payments to Mauritania and Guinea-Bissau for the conservation of marine protected areas under the Fisheries Partnership Agreements. The detailed case study is available in the 2017 OECD report The Political Economy of Biodiversity Policy Reform. A separate “Policy Highlights” brochure, which distils key messages and lessons learned from the full report is also available. Creation-Date: 2018-02-16 Number: 10 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:10-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Financing water: Investing in sustainable growth Abstract: This paper sets out essential facts about the economic case for water-related investment and the financing gap. It charts a series of actions to better value water and ultimately facilitate investment at a scale commensurate with the commitments of the global community. Creation-Date: 2018-03-20 Number: 11 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:11-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Improving Plastics Management: Trends, policy responses, and the role of international co-operation and trade Abstract: This Policy Paper comprises the Background Report prepared by the OECD for the G7 Environment, Energy and Oceans Ministers. It provides an overview of current plastics production and use, the environmental impacts that this is generating and identifies the reasons for currently low plastics recycling rates, as well as what can be done about it. Creation-Date: 2018-09-18 Number: 12 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:12-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Innovative Approaches to Building Resilient Coastal Infrastructure Abstract: This Policy Paper comprises an Issue Brief and Background Report prepared by the OECD for the G7 Environment, Energy and Oceans Ministers. It outlines the rising risks faced by coastal communities, which are being exacerbated by climate change. It shows how governments can harness innovation in information, planning, financing and monitoring to help improve resilience of those areas to climate change, and emphasises the need for close engagement with coastal communities. Creation-Date: 2018-09-18 Number: 13 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:13-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Climate-resilient infrastructure Abstract: A co-ordinated policy response is needed to ensure that new and existing infrastructure networks are resilient to climate change. This Policy Paper outlines a framework for achieving this based on the experiences in OECD and G20 countries. It shows how governments and businesses can collaborate to mobilise investment for climate-resilient infrastructure. Creation-Date: 2018-12-07 Number: 14 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:14-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Sustainable connectivity: Closing the gender gap in infrastructure Abstract: Good quality and sustainable infrastructure that meets the needs of women, men, children, minorities, people with disabilities and other vulnerable groups is essential for human well-being, economic growth and environmental sustainability. This Policy Paper shows how women and men may use infrastructure differently according to their needs, social roles or preferences. Building on OECD policy tools and several axes of work, it provides a framework to help countries align their infrastructure policies and projects with other societal and environmental goals, including supporting gender equality. Creation-Date: 2019-04-17 Number: 15 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:15-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Blockchain technologies as a digital enabler for sustainable infrastructure Abstract: Embracing new technologies that could enable drastic reductions in GHG emissions will be key to delivering low-emissions pathways for growth, but it is not always obvious what the big breakthroughs will look like. This report looks at how blockchain technology can be applied to support sustainable infrastructure investment that is aligned with climate change objectives. It focuses on three key points: the financing of infrastructure initiatives, the creation of visibility and alignment of climate action, and the provisioning of awareness and access for institutions and consumers. Creation-Date: 2019-09-05 Number: 16 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:16-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Financing climate objectives in cities and regions to deliver sustainable and inclusive growth Abstract: The investment choices we make in the coming years will either lock-in a climate-compatible, inclusive growth pathway, or a high-carbon, inefficient and unsustainable pathway for decades to come. Cities and regions, responsible for 60% of public investment in OECD countries, are significant contributes to spending and investment related to climate. With high levels of inequalities in many cities, the success of the transition will depend on the ability of local governments to engage in a “just” transition. This paper focuses on how national and sub-national governments can align subnational financial flows to transition towards low-carbon, resilient and inclusive cities. The paper is a contribution from the OECD Champion Mayors for Inclusive Growth initiative and to the OECD Programme on Subnational Finance and Investment. Creation-Date: 2019-09-17 Number: 17 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:17-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Scaling up climate-compatible infrastructure: Insights from national development banks in Brazil and South Africa Abstract: National development banks (NDBs) and development finance institutions – domestically focused, publicly owned financial institutions with a specific development mandate – are poised to play a role in bridging the investment gap for climate-compatible infrastructure in developing countries. But delivering on the Paris Agreement will require NDBs to transition from their traditional role as ‘financer’ to ‘mobiliser’ of investment for infrastructure, and to be better recognised in the international climate and development finance landscape. This paper highlights the role of NDBs drawing from case studies of the Brazilian Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social and the Development Bank of Southern Africa. As such, it provides important impetus to the international discourse on decisive climate action. Creation-Date: 2019-10-30 Number: 18 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:18-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Towards a green fiscal reform in the Slovak Republic: Proposals for strengthening the role of market-based environmental policy instruments Abstract: Environmental fiscal reforms are an essential building block to steer countries onto a sustainable long-term development path. This paper develops proposals for strengthening the role of market-based environmental policy instruments in the Slovak Republic. The paper discusses reform options aimed at mitigating air pollution and climate change, improved waste management and biodiversity conservation. This includes measures such as introduction of automatic indexation of environmentally related taxes, differentiation of energy tax rates by emission intensity of fuels, broadening tax bases to include all emission sources and reforming preferential fiscal treatment of household fuel use – a major source of local air pollution. In the waste management domain, raising the landfill tax to better reflect external environmental costs of particular tax bases would help encourage diversion of waste from landfills. A complementary waste incineration tax would help incentivise waste prevention, composting and material recycling. Creation-Date: 2020-06-22 Number: 19 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:19-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Improving resource efficiency and the circularity of economies for a greener world Abstract: Global demand for materials has been growing over the past century, driven by a steady economic growth in OECD countries, the industrialisation of emerging economies and a growing world population. At the global level, materials use more than doubled between 1990 and 2017, and it is projected to double again by 2060. Due to the growing amounts of materials use, environmental pressures such as land degradation, greenhouse gas emissions and the dispersion of toxic substances in the environment are projected to more than double in the decades to come. In this context, improving resource efficiency and stimulating the transition towards a more circular economy has become crucial. In recent years an increasing number of governments have started implementing policies and strategies to meet this objective, but stronger efforts are needed to significantly improve the sustainability of materials management and the circularity of economies across the world. Creation-Date: 2020-07-02 Number: 20 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:20-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Nature-based solutions for adapting to water-related climate risks Abstract: Healthy ecosystems, and their associated services, can provide effective natural protection against water-related climate risks. Nature-based solutions (NbS) have recently gained momentum in international policy discussions due to their potential to foster synergies between ecosystem health and human wellbeing, while also offering economic benefits. This paper provides an overview of the use of NbS to date in OECD countries and finds that in most cases ambition for NbS does not match practice. Focusing on the application of NbS for addressing climate-related flood and drought risks, this paper explores why prevailing decision making frameworks may fail to adequately consider NbS. It sets out a policy evaluation framework that supports the identification of, and proposed ways to address constraints on the use of NbS to address water-related climate risks. Creation-Date: 2020-07-29 Number: 21 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:21-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Reframing Financing and Investment for a Sustainable Ocean Economy Abstract: This paper sets out a new framing of the challenges and opportunities for scaling up financing and investment for a sustainable ocean economy. It examines the particular challenges associated with financing sustainable ocean activities across different sectors and explores promising financing instruments, including by identifying learnings from elsewhere in the green finance sphere.This paper contributes to the OECD horizontal ocean project. To support government efforts to transition to a more sustainable ocean economy, the OECD is mobilising expertise across multiple policy fronts, covering environmental, economic, financial and social dimensions. Working with both developed and developing countries, the OECD aims to ensure that all societies can harness the benefits of the ocean on a sustainable and inclusive basis. Creation-Date: 2020-10-07 Number: 22 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:22-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Strengthening adaptation-mitigation linkages for a low-carbon, climate-resilient future Abstract: Strengthening linkages between climate change adaptation and mitigation policies can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of actions in support of a low-carbon, climate-resilient economic development. This policy paper provides an overview and a discussion of linkages, shedding light on the synergies that can be achieved as well as the trade-offs that could arise between the two policy agendas, but also across other environmental or social policy objectives. It aims at inspiring reflections of fostering linkages, especially as part of countries’ ongoing discussions on designing green recovery measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.This Policy Paper was prepared as a background document for the G20 Climate Stewardship Working Group discussions under the G20 Presidency of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Creation-Date: 2021-01-08 Number: 23 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:23-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Adapting to a changing climate in the management of coastal zones Abstract: This paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the recent and projected socio-economic development of coastal areas. It reviews the environmental pressures exerted by human activities on coastal areas, as well as the impacts of climate change that exacerbate existing challenges. The paper calls for a co-ordinated and well-adapted policy response to address these challenges. Keywords: climate change, climate risks, coastal areas, oceans, sea level rise Creation-Date: 2021-04-14 Number: 24 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:24-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Towards G7 action to combat ghost fishing gear: A background report prepared for the 2021 G7 Presidency of the United Kingdom Abstract: This report provides in-depth analysis of the drivers, impacts and best practices to address ghost fishing gear. It places the issues of abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear within the larger context of marine plastic pollution. Ghost gear is particularly harmful because it negatively affects fisheries, non-target species (e.g. entanglement of wildlife), habitats, navigational safety, and coastal tourism. As a significant source of marine pollution, ghost fishing gear contributes to environmental and health risks of plastic pollution. The report identifies good practices and policies to prevent gear loss, reduce its impacts, and to recover lost gear. It reviews current policy efforts at the international level and in G7 countries and recommends a comprehensive policy response through international co-operation and circular economy approaches. Creation-Date: 2021-05-21 Number: 25 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:25-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Biodiversity, natural capital and the economy: A policy guide for finance, economic and environment ministers Abstract: Nature underpins all economic activities and human well-being. It is the world’s most important asset. Yet humanity is destroying biodiversity at an unprecedented rate, posing significant but often overlooked risks to the economy, the financial sector and the well-being of current and future generations. This report provides the latest findings and policy guidance for G7 and other countries in four key areas: measuring and mainstreaming biodiversity; aligning budgetary and fiscal policy with biodiversity; embedding biodiversity in the financial sector; and improving biodiversity outcomes linked to international trade. The report shows how Finance, Economic and Environment Ministries can drive the transformative changes required to halt and reverse the loss of biodiversity.This Policy Paper was prepared as an input document for the United Kingdom Presidency of the G7 in 2021. Creation-Date: 2021-05-21 Number: 26 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:26-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Towards a national strategic framework for the circular economy in the Czech Republic: Analysis and a proposed set of key elements Abstract: The past decades have witnessed unprecedented growth in global consumption of raw materials, which also lead to increased environmental pressures. As a response to these challenges, countries across the world have made the transition to a circular economy one of their policy priorities. This report develops a set of key elements of a strategic framework for the circular economy in the Czech Republic, which the government is developing (Circular Czechia 2040). It discusses the rationale for transitioning to a circular economy in the Czech Republic and provides an in-depth analysis of four priority areas: consumption and consumers, waste management, economic instruments, as well as research innovation and digitalisation. The report also suggests 40 concrete policy measures to help implement the strategic framework, along with a monitoring framework to measure the progress made. This report was co-funded by the European Union via the Structural Reform Support Programme. Keywords: circular economy, consumption, difitalisation, economic instruments, production, research development and innovation, resource efficiency, waste management Creation-Date: 2021-06-17 Number: 27 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:27-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: De-risking institutional investment in green infrastructure: 2021 progress update Abstract: This policy paper catalogues tools and techniques used by public actors such as national development banks and green investment banks to mitigate project-level risks and attract private investment in infrastructure. The paper updates the dataset underlying the 2018 "Progress Update on Approaches to Mobilising Institutional Investment for Sustainable Infrastructure", to provide an expanded typology of de-risking instruments and highlight several novel approaches for mobilising institutional investment. The analysis provides development banks and other public financial institutions a nuanced view of options for targeted mobilisation efforts. Keywords: de-risking, financial innovation, green, green growth, infrastructure, institutional innovation, public sector, risk Creation-Date: 2021-06-29 Number: 28 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:28-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Lessons learnt and good practice from APEC-economy fossil-fuel subsidy peer reviews Abstract: According to latest data from the OECD and the IEA, government support for the production and use of fossil fuels across 81 major economies totalled USD 351 billion in 2020, amounting to USD 183 billion across 50 OECD, G20, and Eastern Partnership economies. While the difficulty of reform is evident from the range and complexity of challenges confronting governments in the phasing-out of fossil-fuel subsidies, APEC economy-led fossil-fuel subsidy peer reviews play a key role in pointing out commonly faced challenges, and present options to tackle them more effectively. This report is the first comprehensive attempt to document “scalable” lessons and examples of good practice emerging from fossil-fuel subsidy peer reviews: taking stock of progress in their phase-out as reflected in the peer review reports, considering the role of the peer review process in promoting reform, and proposing potential ways to enhance the process. Eleven peer reviews are documented, seven of which were chaired by the OECD and four in which the IEA was a member of the review panel. Six of these peer reviews were conducted under the auspices of the G20, and four under APEC auspices, with the addition of the OECD-IEA review of the Netherlands, modelled on the G20 review process. The economies reviewed inventoried between three to thirty-nine measures, of an average self-declared value of USD 13 billion, for those reviews which quantified fossil fuel support measures. The “scalable” lessons drawn from the peer reviews can be used to further spur progress towards rationalising and phasing out fossil-fuel subsidies, thanks to the insights on the approaches and good practices for designing the reform process. These insights include the need to accommodate for differing contexts, objectives and definitions; to prioritise inter-ministerial co-ordination; to promote active government and stakeholder participation; and to engage a cross-sectional peer review panel. Classification-JEL: Q48 Keywords: APEC, challenges, designing reform process, Environment, fossil fuel, good practice, peer review, phase-out, reform, subsidy reform, Trade Creation-Date: 2022-02-09 Number: 29 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:29-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Closing the loop in the Slovak Republic: A roadmap towards circularity for competitiveness, eco-innovation and sustainability Abstract: The use of materials globally has increased over the past century and it will continue to grow with sustained population and economic growth. Such growth also leads to increased environmental pressures, including climate change. While the Slovak Republic has made notable progress in decoupling environmental pressures from economic activity, its economy remains energy-, carbon- and resource-intensive. The urgent need to steer the country towards circularity calls for a national circular economy strategy to help focus efforts where they are needed most. This report identifies and analyses three areas where circular economy policy would be particularly impactful: the use of economic instruments to promote sustainable consumption and production, the construction sector and the food and bio-waste value chain. It also proposes more than 30 concrete policy recommendations supported by an implementation plan and a monitoring framework. Implementing these recommendations can also help the Slovak economy reach its climate change mitigation objectives. Classification-JEL: H23; K32; O13; O14; Q53; Q55; Q58 Keywords: bio-waste, circular economy, circular economy policy, circular economy strategy, construction, economic instruments, food waste, resource efficiency, sustainable consumption and production, waste management Creation-Date: 2022-07-13 Number: 30 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:30-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: OECD blended finance guidance for clean energy Abstract: Meeting the Paris Agreement goals will need a rapid acceleration of finance towards clean energy investments in emerging and developing economies. Blended finance is an important tool that can help mobilise commercial investment towards clean energy, whilst preserving scarce public resources for wider climate and development objectives. A systematic approach to the deployment of blended finance – that tailors instruments to the nature of underlying barriers to commercial investment, minimises concessionality, has a clear exit strategy, and is co-ordinated within a wider ecosystem of support and enabling measures – can help maximise its development impact and stimulate private sector development. This paper explores specific features of clean energy projects, and the wider transition, to draw lessons for donors, policymakers in beneficiary governments, and financial institutions on whether and how best to deploy blended finance in the sector. It revisits the OECD DAC's Blended Finance Principles, specifically Principle 2: designing blended finance to increase the mobilisation of commercial finance, and explores their applicability to clean energy. It also explores sector-specific considerations for the deployment of clean energy, setting out the considerations development practitioners can make to inform better decision-making on, and maximise the development impact of, blended finance interventions. Classification-JEL: F35; G15; G18; G23; G28; H23; H41; L94; Q20; Q21; Q28 Keywords: blended finance, clean energy, energy efficiency, off-grid renewables, renewable energy Creation-Date: 2022-08-30 Number: 31 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:31-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Framework for industry’s net-zero transition: Developing financing solutions in emerging and developing economies Abstract: The manufacturing industry is a major source of global carbon dioxide emissions. Industrial production will continue to shift to emerging and developing economies. New investments are needed in low-carbon technologies to align industry’s growth with countries’ net-zero emission targets. In order to reduce the risks associated with the high cost and low maturity of the many needed low-carbon technologies, scaling up finance from both public and private financial sources will be crucial. OECD’s new “Framework for industry’s net-zero transition” is a step-by-step approach to assist emerging and developing economies in designing solutions for financing and to improve the enabling conditions that can accelerate industry’s transition. Outcomes of the Framework implementation in emerging and developing economies will contribute to the broader climate and finance policies and it can help to facilitate international co-operation for transition at scale. Keywords: blended finance, carbon border adjustment mechanism, carbon price, carbon tax, CCUS, circular economy, clean energy finance, clean energy investment, clean energy policy framework, climate change, climate change mitigation, climate resilience, de-risking instruments, emission trading system, emissions reductions, enabling conditions, energy efficiency, financing instruments, green hydrogen, green industry, green infrastructure, greening supply chains, industry decarbonisation, industry transformation, industry transition, large corporates, low-carbon fuels, low-carbon industry, low-carbon investment, low-carbon technologies, material efficiency, Net-zero emissions, renewable energy, renewable heat, small and medium enterprises, sustainable business, sustainable industry, sustainable infrastructure, transition finance Creation-Date: 2022-09-08 Number: 32 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:32-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Supporting women’s empowerment through green policies and finance Abstract: It is increasingly recognised that women and girls tend to be disproportionately impacted by climate change and other environmental challenges, especially in developing countries. Yet, little research or policy action has focused on how gender equality and environmental goals can be mutually reinforcing. This policy paper examines linkages and synergies between these two policy agendas and explores the role of green policies, finance and infrastructure in supporting women’s empowerment and gender equality. The paper finds that while the interlinkages that shape the gender-environment nexus are starting to be acknowledged, further efforts are needed to foster synergies between gender and environmental goals in policy design, sustainable finance approaches as well as in infrastructure planning and implementation. Keywords: climate action, ESG investing, gender equality, green finance, sustainable finance, sustainable infrastructure, women's empowerment Creation-Date: 2022-09-29 Number: 33 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:33-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Linda Livingstone Author-Name: Peter Börkey Author-Name: Rob Dellink Author-Name: Frithjof Laubinger Title: Synergies and trade-offs in the transition to a resource-efficient and circular economy Abstract: The world's raw materials consumption is expected to nearly double by 2060. This is particularly alarming because materials extraction, processing, use and waste management lead to significant environmental pressures. A circular economy aims to transform the current linear economy into a circular model to reduce the consumption of finite material resources by recovering materials from waste streams for recycling or reuse, using products longer, and exploiting the potential of the sharing and services economy.This paper underlines the synergies policy makers can create between different resource-efficient and circular economy transition objectives when designing policy packages. It also highlights potential trade-offs that may arise in their implementation. The paper shows that the existing OECD policy analysis provides a toolkit for governments to take more ambitious actions toward a resource-efficient, circular economy. In addition, OECD modelling studies project that the transition can bring significant environmental gains while preserving economic growth and social objectives. Classification-JEL: O13; Q38; Q53; Q58 Keywords: circular economy, environmental policy, recycling, resource efficiency Creation-Date: 2022-12-20 Number: 34 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:34-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Adaptation measurement: Assessing municipal climate risks to inform adaptation policy in the Slovak Republic Abstract: Climate change presents a major social, economic and political challenge for the Slovak Republic. The majority of municipal administrations are unaware of the potential climate risks they face today and in the coming years. Identifying risks posed by climate change and its inevitable impacts is an essential part of developing adaptation policies. While national adaptation policies have historically been formulated in an ad hoc manner, an evidence-based approach that relies on data is increasingly informing policy decisions. This paper provides an overview of the country’s adaptation policy context and presents a methodology – and the results of its application – for measuring climate change risks with respect to heat, drought and extreme precipitation. The results aim to inform future budget allocation decisions for climate change adaptation. Classification-JEL: C60; Q54; Q58 Keywords: climate change adaptation, climate hazards, data envelopment analysis Creation-Date: 2023-04-13 Number: 35 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:35-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Assessing biodiversity-related financial risks: Navigating the landscape of existing approaches Abstract: Although measurements of biodiversity-related financial risks are in their infancy, several metrics and indicators are available to assess their impacts and dependencies in the financial system, and approaches are emerging to translate biodiversity risks into financial risks. This mapping paper provides a comprehensive catalogue and literature review of existing and emerging definitions, key metrics and indicators, measurement approaches, tools and practices for central banks, financial supervisors, and financial market participants to measure biodiversity-related financial risks. Keywords: biodiversity, biodiversity loss, central banks, ecosystem services, ecosystems, financial risk, financial system, nature Creation-Date: 2023-04-27 Number: 36 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:36-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Taming wildfires in the context of climate change: The case of Portugal Abstract: The frequency and severity of extreme wildfires are on the rise in Portugal, causing unprecedented disruption and increasingly challenging the country’s capacity to contain losses and damages. These challenges are set to keep growing in the context of climate change, highlighting the need to scale up wildfire prevention and climate change adaptation. This paper provides an overview of Portugal’s wildfire policies and practices and assesses the extent to which wildfire management in the country is evolving to adapt to growing wildfire risk under climate change. Keywords: climate change adaptation, prevention, wildfire Creation-Date: 2023-09-20 Number: 37 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:37-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Climate adaptation: Why local governments cannot do it alone Abstract: Given the direct impacts of climate change are felt first and foremost at the local level, many have called for climate adaptation to be a local responsibility. Indeed, local authorities have a major influence on climate change adaptation - such as through their land use and permitting decisions. Yet, their actions are strongly determined by the national fiscal, regulatory and policy contexts in which they are embedded in. This policy paper provides an overview and a discussion of the roles and responsibilities for climate adaptation across levels of government. It argues that co-operation across levels of government is needed to strengthen adaptation at the local level. This policy paper was prepared as part of the OECD Territorial Approach to Climate Action and Resilience programme, which supports subnational authorities in their efforts to accelerate the net zero transition and build systemic resilience. Keywords: Climate change, climate change adaptation, climate risk, local government Creation-Date: 2023-12-04 Number: 38 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:38-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Promoting nature-based solutions in municipalities in Hungary Abstract: Nature-based solutions (NbS) aim to maintain, enhance and restore ecosystems to address a variety of social, economic and environmental challenges, including climate change and biodiversity loss. This paper applies the OECD’s framework to provide recommendations for how to encourage the use of NbS by Hungarian municipalities. It illustrates some of the key challenges in the local implementation of NbS in Hungary and provides international examples of how they are tackled in diverse contexts. It also discusses the role of reforms about the enabling environment to mobilise further public and private investment in climate adaptation. Creation-Date: 2023-12-07 Number: 39 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:39-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Taming wildfires in the context of climate change: The case of the United States Abstract: The frequency and severity of extreme wildfires are on the rise in the United States, causing unprecedented disruption and increasingly challenging the country’s capacity to contain losses and damages. These challenges are set to keep growing in the context of climate change, highlighting the need to scale up wildfire prevention and climate change adaptation. This paper provides an overview of the United States’ wildfire policies and practices and assesses the extent to which wildfire management in the country is evolving to adapt to growing wildfire risk under climate change. Keywords: climate adaptation, climate change, prevention, wildfire Creation-Date: 2024-01-22 Number: 40 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:40-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Extended Producer Responsibility: Basic facts and key principles Abstract: Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a policy approach that makes producers responsible for their products along the entire lifecycle, including at the post-consumer stage. This policy paper summarises the current consensus on the EPR policy approach.By taking stock of what's known and well established in the literature, it aims to foster a common understanding of the EPR approach and to provide guiding principles for its successful implementation. This paper makes a valuable contribution to an increasing number of policy debates and processes that are ongoing, both at national and international levels, in areas such as plastics, electric and electronic waste and textiles. Classification-JEL: Q53; Q56; Q58 Keywords: circular economy, extended producer responsibility, product stewardship, resource efficiency, sustainable consumption, waste management Creation-Date: 2024-04-17 Number: 41 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:41-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Demand-side policy measures for environmental sustainability Abstract: The consumption of products, services and transportation has significant environmental consequences and account for the majority of global greenhouse gas emissions. Meanwhile, demand-side policy measures have the potential to reduce the environmental footprint of these activities by up to 40-70%. This Policy Paper draws on the OECD’s recent household survey on environmental policy and behavioural change to provide insights and policy recommendations for specific measures that can encourage more sustainable household consumption of energy, transport and food as well as more sustainable waste practices. The report was prepared in support of Japan’s 2023 G7 presidency. Keywords: Demand-side policy, Energy, Food, Household behaviour, Sustainable consumption, Transport, Waste Creation-Date: 2024-05-17 Number: 42 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:42-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Taming wildfires in the context of climate change: The case of Greece Abstract: The frequency and severity of extreme wildfires are on the rise in Greece, causing unprecedented disruption and increasingly challenging the country’s capacity to contain losses and damages. These challenges are set to keep growing in the context of climate change, highlighting the need to scale up wildfire prevention and climate change adaptation. This paper provides an overview of Greece's wildfire policies and practices and assesses the extent to which wildfire management in the country is evolving to adapt to growing wildfire risk under climate change. Keywords: climate adaptation, climate change, prevention, risk reduction, wildfire Creation-Date: 2024-06-14 Number: 43 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:43-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Financing a Future Free from Plastic Leakage Abstract: As plastic use becomes more pervasive, the environmental repercussions of plastic pollution are expected to become increasingly unsustainable. The global community is far from achieving its long-term objective of ending plastic pollution unless countries implement significantly more stringent and coordinated policies. This paper addresses the costs associated with different policies aimed at ending plastic pollution, as well as paying particular attention to how the development cooperation and finance can support countries that have less financial resources to live up to the challenge of ending plastic pollution. Creation-Date: 2023-01-01 Number: 44 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:44-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Climate change and Plastics: Synergies between two crucial environmental challenges Abstract: Agendas on climate change mitigation and plastic pollution have largely developed independently. However, the two issues are closely linked. Most plastics are produced from fossil fuels. Jointly, the production, conversion and waste management of plastics generate greenhouse gas emissions. This paper reviews the interactions and synergies between climate change and plastics pollution. It subsequently reviews interactions between policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and plastic pollution. The findings from this work can help inform policy agendas and provide opportunities for countries to develop policies which exploit synergies. Creation-Date: 2023-05-01 Number: 45 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:45-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Adapting infrastructure to changing climatic conditions: The case of the Philippines Abstract: Infrastructure has been essential in supporting the Philippines’ rapidly growing economy. Yet, infrastructure assets and operations are significantly exposed to climate-related risks. Building climate resilience into infrastructure planning and financing is therefore a strategic priority for the country. This policy paper presents the findings from an OECD policy dialogue carried out in the Philippines on mainstreaming climate resilience in infrastructure planning and development. It provides an overview of current policies and practices as well as policy recommendations for the government to further strengthen the resilience of infrastructure to climate change and raise future ambitions. Creation-Date: 2024-09-25 Number: 46 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:46-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: A comprehensive overview of global biodiversity finance Abstract: Implementing an effective post-2020 global biodiversity framework will demand ambitious and widespread use of biodiversity policy instruments, and other measures, to promote sustainable patterns of production and consumption. It will also require governments and the private sector to scale up biodiversity finance and reduce finance flows that harm biodiversity. While it is clear that biodiversity finance must be increased, little information has been available on recent biodiversity expenditure. Building on OECD’s 2019 report to the G7 Environment Ministers on “Biodiversity: Finance and the Business and Economic Case for Action”, which included a preliminary update on global biodiversity finance flows, this report aims to address this information gap by providing a more comprehensive overview and an aggregate estimate of global biodiversity finance. The report also provides an overview of government support potentially harmful to biodiversity, and offers recommendations for improving the assessment, tracking and reporting of biodiversity finance. Creation-Date: 2020-04-06 Number: 47 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:47-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Adapting infrastructure to changing climatic conditions: The case of Indonesia Abstract: Infrastructure is at the core of Indonesia’s development plan. Yet, infrastructure assets and operations are significantly exposed to climate-related risks. Building climate resilience into infrastructure planning and financing is therefore an important strategic objective. This policy paper presents the findings from an OECD policy dialogue carried out in Indonesia on mainstreaming climate resilience in infrastructure planning and development. It provides an overview of current policies and practices, as well as policy recommendations for the government to further strengthen the resilience of infrastructure to climate change and raise future ambitions. Creation-Date: 2024-12-18 Number: 48 Handle: RePEc:oec:envaac:48-EN