Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thomas Allen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Author-Name: Philipp Heinrigs Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: Emerging Opportunities in the West African Food Economy Abstract: Driven by urbanisation and income growth, the West African food economy has radically changed over the past 60 years. The food economy, including all activities involved in producing food, from production to processing, transport and distribution totalled USD 178 billion in 2010, equal to 36% of the regional GDP. Forty percent of the value added in the food economy is generated by non-agricultural activities. Post-harvest activities are rapidly developing and are expected to grow more quickly in coming decades than other segments of the food value chain. Policies and monitoring systems need to adjust to these changes to leverage the emerging opportunities in agricultural development, employment and value creation. This paper estimates the size and structure of this new food economy, and explores major policy implications. Classification-JEL: Q13; Q18 Keywords: agricultural transformation, food policy, food systems, urbanisation, value chain, West Africa Creation-Date: 2016-07-01 Number: 1 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:1-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Kirsty Lewis Author-Workplace-Name: Met Office UK, Hadley Centre Author-Name: Carlo Buontempo Author-Workplace-Name: Met Office UK, Hadley Centre Title: Climate Impacts in the Sahel and West Africa: The Role of Climate Science in Policy Making Abstract: Given that the population of the Sahel depends largely on rain-fed agriculture and transhumant livestock rearing, there is a growing concern about the future climate of the region as global warming may alter the availability of water resources. The lack of consensus on climate projections for West Africa results partly from the inability of climate models to capture some basic features of present-day climate variability in the region. As a result, climate model projections are difficult to analyse in terms of impacts and provide little guidance to inform decision making on adaption and resilience-building. However, by engaging with users of climate information to better understand their activities and their sensitivities to weather and climate, and by looking beyond the user to understand the wider systems context in which climate change occurs, progress can be made in interpreting climate impacts. This paper reviews the latest climate projections for West Africa and considers alternative ways in which the knowledge generated from climate science can be understood in the context of preparing for an uncertain future that provides practical help for decision makers.
La population du Sahel étant dépendante de l’agriculture pluviale et de l’élevage transhumant, les futures conditions climatiques de la région constituent un sujet de préoccupation majeure, le réchauffement climatique pouvant affecter la disponibilité des ressources en eau. L’absence de consensus sur les projections climatiques en Afrique de l’Ouest résulte en partie de l’incapacité des modèles à saisir certaines des caractéristiques de la variabilité actuelle du climat. Les impacts des projections des modèles climatiques sont ainsi difficiles à analyser et peu d’informations utiles à la décision en termes d’adaptation et de renforcement de la résilience sont disponibles. Néanmoins, en travaillant de pair avec les utilisateurs d’informations climatiques pour mieux comprendre leurs activités et leur sensitivité aux conditions météorologiques et au climat tout en saisissant le contexte général des systèmes dans lequel le changement climatique se produit, l’interprétation des conséquences climatiques s’améliore. Dans un contexte marqué par l’incertitude sur l’avenir, cette note passe en revue les projections climatiques les plus récentes sur l’Afrique de l’Ouest et aborde des approches alternatives d’interprétation des sciences du climat, susceptibles d’apporter une aide concrète aux décideurs. Classification-JEL: Q54; Q58 Keywords: Afrique de l’Ouest, changement climatique, climate change, climate projections, climate science, climate variability, projections climatiques, sciences du climat, variabilité du climat, West Africa Creation-Date: 2016-08-25 Number: 2 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:2-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Donatella Gnisci Title: Women's Roles in the West African Food System: Implications and Prospects for Food Security and Resilience Abstract: This paper examines how women’s empowerment is essential for food and nutrition security and resilience in West Africa and suggests policy “pointers” arising from the West African experience that can help inform policies and strategies, particularly in view of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. West African women play a significant role at each stage in the food system, from production to distribution to nutrition, and they contribute to building resilience and adaptability to uncertainty and shocks including the effects of climate change. While it is clear that women significantly contribute to the eradication of hunger and malnutrition, it is also evident that there is a need for greater political representation and participation in policy dialogues.
Cette note montre en quoi l’autonomisation des femmes est essentielle à la sécurité et à la résilience alimentaire et nutritionnelle en Afrique de l’Ouest. Elle suggère des arguments éclairés tirés de l’expérience ouest-africaine pour nourrir les politiques et stratégies en vue de l’agenda international pour le développement durable à l’horizon 2030. Les femmes ouest-africaines jouent un rôle important à chaque étape du système alimentaire, de la production à la nutrition en passant par la distribution. Elles contribuent à renforcer la résilience et la capacité d’adaptation aux incertitudes et aux chocs tels que les effets du changement climatique. Alors qu’il est clair que les femmes aident de manière significative à l’élimination de la faim et de la malnutrition, il est également évident qu’elles doivent être mieux représentées politiquement et participer davantage au dialogue sur les politiques. Keywords: food systems, gender, West Africa, Women Creation-Date: 2016-10-21 Number: 3 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:3-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: John Staatz Author-Workplace-Name: Michigan State University Author-Name: Frank Hollinger Author-Workplace-Name: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Title: West African Food Systems and Changing Consumer Demands Abstract: Fueled by a burgeoning population, urbanisation and income growth, West African food demand is rapidly transforming, with striking increases in total quantities demanded, growing preference for convenience, diversification of diets towards more perishable products, and an increased concern for product quality. These changes provide great opportunities for the West African food system to increase production, value added, job creation and food security. Yet a number of structural and policy constraints continue to threaten the ability of West Africa to seize these opportunities. This paper analyses the key drivers of change and their implications on the various demands facing the food system. It then looks at how different elements of the food system respond to evolving demands, discusses the constraints to more effective responses, and finally considers some policy implications and key recommendations, particularly in the context of the ECOWAS-led efforts to develop and implement more effective regional agricultural policies. Classification-JEL: Q18; R11; N57; Q13; R58 Keywords: agricultural transformation, food demand, food policy, food systems Creation-Date: 2016-12-15 Number: 4 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:4-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Rafael Prieto Curiel Author-Workplace-Name: University College London Author-Name: Philipp Heinrigs Author-Workplace-Name: Sahel and West Africa Club Author-Name: Inhoi Heo Author-Workplace-Name: Sahel and West Africa Club Title: Cities and Spatial Interactions in West Africa Abstract: Over the past 60 years, urbanisation and cities have fundamentally transformed the social, economic and political geography of West Africa. The number of people living in cities increased from 5 million in 1950 to 133 million in 2010. During the same period, the number of towns and cities with more than 10 000 inhabitants grew from 159 to close to 2 000. A large majority of these agglomerations are secondary cities and small towns that act as hubs and catalysts for local and regional production and supply chains, as well as for the transfer of goods, people and information, linking the local and regional economies to the global economy. The intensity of the spatial interactions of cities has strongly increased with population growth, urbanisation and higher urban density. This paper, part of ongoing work within the Sahel and West Africa Club Secretariat to integrate urbanisation and city growth into analyses of major trends in the region, lays the foundation for the development of a systematic method to capture and describe these spatial interactions. It does so by examining four variables: city size, market potential, urbanisation level and local dominance. These variables, in turn, help to define seven different city groups that can be used to classify West African agglomerations. The initial results of this work reveal the diversity and distinctive behaviours of cities in the region, providing a new perspective on urbanisation dynamics and the influence of spatial variables on urban growth rates, the emergence of new agglomerations and the clustering of cities. Classification-JEL: C31; C38; J11; R12; R58 Keywords: mega cities, metropolitan areas, secondary towns, urbanisation Creation-Date: 2017-03-31 Number: 5 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:5-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier J. Walther Author-Workplace-Name: University of Southern Denmark Title: Cross-border Co-operation Networks in West Africa Abstract: Long seen as artificial barriers inherited from decolonisation, West African borders now lie at the heart of policies designed to encourage regional trade and combat political instability. This rediscovery of the peripheries of the nation state has fostered a proliferation of institutional initiatives that aim to cultivate co-operation between countries, regions and municipalities while ensuring the protection and promoting the interests and rights of the people living in border regions. Despite these regional initiatives, the effective functioning of cross-border co-operation still remains largely unknown across West Africa. The purpose of this paper is to fill that gap, with an analysis of both the social structure and the geography of West African governance networks. On the basis of this structural and geographic analysis, policy recommendations are formulated aimed at implementing policies that are more place-based, more attentive to relations between the actors at play in co-operation, and more specifically adapted to the constraints and opportunities of the West African region. Classification-JEL: O18; O19; O43; O55; R58 Keywords: cross-border co-operation, governance, networks, regional integration, West Africa Creation-Date: 2017-06-12 Number: 6 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:6-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Ibrahim Yahaya Ibrahim Author-Workplace-Name: Sahel Research Group, University of Florida Title: The Wave of Jihadist Insurgency in West Africa: Global Ideology, Local Context, Individual Motivations Abstract: The recent rise of jihadist movements in West Africa, including Boko Haram in the Lake Chad region and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb and its affiliates in the Sahel-Saharan region, has puzzled many observers. The easy spread of the jihadist ideology, the jihadist movements’ success in massively recruiting followers among local populations as well as their ability to conquer and administer territories, are unprecedented in the region’s contemporary history. This paper sheds light on the factors and processes that contribute to the emergence of these movements. It argues that the phenomenon of jihadist insurgencies in West Africa emerges as a result of a series of processes at the global, local, and individual level. At the global level, there is the formation and dissemination of the global ideology of jihadism, conceptualised by Muslim activists and scholars based on a particular understanding of Islam and the challenges that are facing contemporary Muslim societies. At the local level, the appropriation of jihadist ideologies by “Muslim activists” who then use it to formulate a discourse which taps into local social and political demands in order to mobilise followers, is key. For a wide range of reasons, certain regions of Africa have experienced weakened state capacity and increased local conflict, and it is in these areas that jihadist insurgencies have emerged. At the individual level, the process by which African individuals decide to enrol in jihadist groups include ideological, situational, and strategic motivations, and these have all been facilitated by deteriorating conditions of life in marginalised areas. Classification-JEL: D74; F5; H56; N47 Keywords: Islamism, jihadism, Sahara-Sahel, terrorism, West Africa Creation-Date: 2017-07-28 Number: 7 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:7-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thomas Allen Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Title: The Cost of High Food Prices in West Africa Abstract: West African households were particularly affected by the food price crisis of 2007-08. As these households depend on markets for two-thirds of their food supplies, prices have become a key determinant of access to food. However, food prices are 30-40% higher in sub-Saharan Africa than in the rest of the world at comparable levels of per capita income. These price levels have a negative impact on the purchasing power of households and are a major factor of food and nutrition insecurity. Price monitoring systems need to be updated and strengthened. Increasing productivity, promoting regional trade and supporting food value chain development are three of the policy options available to decision-makers to drive down food prices sustainably. Classification-JEL: F15; O11; Q11; Q13; Q18 Keywords: competitiveness, food and nutrition security, food system, prices, regional trade Creation-Date: 2017-09-22 Number: 8 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:8-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Jamon Van Den Hoek Author-Workplace-Name: Oregon State University Title: Agricultural market activity and Boko Haram attacks in northeastern Nigeria Abstract: This paper examines the linkages between Boko Haram activities in northeastern Nigeria and declined activities in regional agricultural markets. Building on data from both the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED) and the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET), the paper first considers the geographic distribution of Boko Haram events with respect to market towns and discusses whether there is evidence of Boko Haram activities near markets having influence on declined market operations. Next, it examines the temporal character of market operations and the timing of their changes in their operational status, including market closures, with respect to the seasonality of agricultural production and land use in northeastern Nigeria. The paper measures the frequency of changes in regional market activities and considers spatial relationships and temporal correlations with Boko Haram activities in the region over twelve periods from late 2014 through the end of 2016. Finally, the paper formulates policy recommendations for assessing and mitigating coupled challenges of human and environmental security. Classification-JEL: D74; H56; N47; N57; R11 Keywords: Boko Haram, Lake Chad, markets, northeastern Nigeria, political violence Creation-Date: 2017-09-27 Number: 9 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:9-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier J. Walther Author-Workplace-Name: Sahel Research Group, University of Florida Title: Wars and Conflicts in the Sahara-Sahel Abstract: The Sahel and the Sahara are faced with exceptional political instability involving a combination of rebellions, jihadist insurgencies, coups d’état, protest movements and illegal trafficking. The backdrop to this accumulated violence is a globalised security environment, which blurs the traditional lines between what is local and global, military and civilian, domestic and international, politics and identity. The purpose of this paper is to analyse these patterns of violence. The first section presents the geographic distribution and development over time of the main sources of violence in North and West Africa before examining the events behind the increase in political violence in the Sahel and the Sahara. The second section analyses the patterns of violence, and focuses on the geographic scales thereof and the strategies of the warring parties. In its conclusion, the paper highlights the need to strengthen regional co-operation, restore the legitimacy of governments, and establish inclusive governance solutions in conflict zones. Classification-JEL: D74; F5; H56; N47 Keywords: conflict, jihadism, Sahara, Sahel, security, terrorism, war Creation-Date: 2017-09-29 Number: 10 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:10-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sebastian Elischer Author-Workplace-Name: University of Florida Title: Defying the odds? Nigerien responses to foreign and domestic security challenges Abstract: The objective of this paper is to identify the manifold security threats confronting the Republic of Niger. It examines if and how various domestic and external actors may exploit Niger’s adverse structural conditions to their benefit and derives possible future scenarios and recommendations for policymakers. Foreign-based jihadist groups such as Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and Boko Haram will continue to threaten Niger’s domestic stability. However, these groups are unlikely to make further inroads into Nigerien territory. The Tuareg community and conservative Sunni groups are unlikely to rise up against the state as both are well integrated into the political and societal landscape. The most viable threat to Niger’s stability is the continued inability of the current administration to translate macroeconomic gains and donor support into pro-poor growth and social inclusion. The increasing use of authoritarian measures against citizens and journalists has the potential to escalate further and to undermine the legitimacy of the government in the long-term. Classification-JEL: D74; F5; H56; N47; N57 Keywords: Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, jihadist groups, Niger, security, West Africa Creation-Date: 2018-01-26 Number: 11 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:11-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daniel Eizenga Author-Workplace-Name: Sahel Research Group, University of Florida Title: The unstable foundations of political stability in Chad Abstract: Chad has emerged as an important counter-terrorism partner in the Lake Chad Basin and the broader Sahel-Sahara region due to its recent political stability and military contribution to security efforts in these troubled zones. However, a closer look at developments in domestic politics, notably the continued and increasingly severe repression of the political opposition and civil society, suggests that this stability may not be built on solid foundations. This paper considers the role Chad has played in the fight against Boko Haram and other forms of regional violent extremism in an effort to take stock of the current threats the Chadian government faces from external actors. It then investigates growing domestic grievances due to an ongoing fiscal crisis, attacks on civil liberties, and a disrupted electoral calendar which risk escalating and destabilising the current government. The paper argues that the mitigation of these diverse and multi-dimensional security threats, particularly at the domestic level, would benefit from an environment that is more supportive of democratic institutions and the rule of law, thus enhancing the country’s prospects for stability in the short- and long-term. Classification-JEL: D74; F5; H56; N47 Keywords: Boko Haram, Chad, political stability, Sahel, security Creation-Date: 2018-02-07 Number: 12 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:12-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Nejma Bouchama Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Development Centre Author-Name: Gaëlle Ferrant Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Development Centre Author-Name: Léa Fuiret Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Development Centre Author-Name: Alejandra Meneses Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Development Centre Author-Name: Annelise Thim Author-Workplace-Name: OECD Development Centre Title: Gender Inequality in West African Social Institutions Abstract: Discriminatory social institutions – formal and informal laws, social norms and practices – restrict women’s rights and empowerment opportunities across 17 West African countries. New laws and measures to protect and promote women’s economic, political and human rights have been accompanied by impressive reductions in gender gaps. However, discriminatory social institutions still constitute significant impediments to women’s access to land assets and restrict women’s physical integrity and decision-making power in both private and public spheres. This holds back women’s education and economic empowerment, thereby decreasing countries’ potential growth. The data and analysis based on the OECD Development Centre’s Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) aims to provide policy makers with the necessary tools and evidence to design more effective gender-responsive policies. Putting social institutions at the core of policy responses may open new and sustainable vistas to promote gender equality in national and regional development agendas. Classification-JEL: J16; K38; N37 Keywords: gender inequality, social institutions, West Africa, women Creation-Date: 2018-03-08 Number: 13 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:13-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Thomas Allen Author-Name: Philipp Heinrigs Author-Name: Inhoi Heo Title: Agriculture, Food and Jobs in West Africa Abstract: The food economy is the biggest employer in West Africa accounting for 66% of total employment. While the majority of food economy jobs are in agriculture, off-farm employment in food-related manufacturing and service activities is increasing as the food economy adapts to rapid population growth, urbanisation and rising incomes. Given the importance of the food economy in generating employment, its current structure and projected changes have major implications for the design of jobs strategies. This paper quantifies and describes the structure of employment in the food economy across four broad segments of activities: agriculture, processing, marketing and food-away-from home. It also examines some of the emerging spatial implications, in particular rural-urban linkages and rural employment diversification, which are related to the transformations that are reshaping this sector. Finally, it looks at policy considerations for designing targeted employment strategies that leverage the links between agricultural productivity, off-farm employment and rural-urban areas and ensure inclusiveness, particularly for youth and women. Classification-JEL: J21; J43; O11; Q13; Q18 Keywords: employment, food system, value chains, women, youth Creation-Date: 2018-04-05 Number: 14 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:14-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Cornelia F.A. van Wesenbeeck Title: Disentangling urban and rural food security in West Africa Abstract: Strategies to fight hunger and early warning systems often focus on identifying food crises rather than longer-term trends, and concentrate on rural areas. Data on the food and nutrition security situation of West Africa’s growing urban population is scarce and fragmented. Using geo-referenced information available in the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), this report estimates the total number and prevalence of under-nutrition and over-nutrition in West Africa for both urban and rural areas. The analysis reveals that almost 110 million people in West Africa are not receiving the correct nutrition for their needs. Over 58 million people in the region are underweight, 22 million of which live in cities. Another 52 million are either overweight or obese, the large majority of whom are adult urban dwellers. This situation reveals the severity of the “double burden” of under- and over-nutrition. It also calls for greater efforts to identify appropriate metrics to monitor food and nutrition security in urban areas. Classification-JEL: I32; Q18; R28 Keywords: Early warning systems, Food security, Nutrition, obesity, Urban households Creation-Date: 2018-04-16 Number: 15 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:15-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Leena Koni Hoffmann Author-Workplace-Name: Chatham House Author-Name: Paul Melly Author-Workplace-Name: Chatham House Title: Incentives and Constraints of Informal Trade Between Nigeria and its Neighbours Abstract: The scale of unrecorded trade across the border between Nigeria, the region’s biggest economy and market, and its francophone neighbours is particularly high. Despite providing economic incentives, informal trade entails costs, complications and sometimes risks. This paper explores how policy choices and government actions continue to drive informality and the critical steps that might be taken to create a business environment that is more conducive and supportive of trade between West African neighbours on a formal basis. It goes on to examine the steps that have been taken since 2015 regarding trade promotion by West African states and considers the options for further policy action and public investment. Classification-JEL: F1; F4; O1; Q1 Keywords: border co-operation, informal trade, regional integration, regional markets, trade network Creation-Date: 2018-07-18 Number: 16 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:16-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Matthew Kirwin Author-Workplace-Name: US Department of State Author-Name: Jessica Anderson Author-Workplace-Name: Institute for the Study of International Migration Title: Identifying the Factors Driving West African Migration Abstract: Since 2014 over 600 000 African migrants have arrived in Italy through the perilous Central Mediterranean route, and nearly 120 000 arrived in 2017. This paper is the first examination of migration motivations at the individual level using nationally representative surveys and focus group data collected in West Africa. Respondents in six West African countries cite economic factors as the reason for migrating and those who wish to stay claim family and love of country as the ties that bind. The study then specifically focuses on Nigeria, the country of origin for a quarter of all Africans traveling through the Central Mediterranean route. Half of the Nigerians were interested in leaving their country of origin if given the opportunity, well above the number in neighbouring countries. Evidence from the six-country survey suggests individuals are migrating for economic reasons but statistical analysis of the Nigeria data reveals a different set of push factors behind the desire to migrate. In fact, economic standing has a limited effect on Nigerians’ desire to leave their home. Instead, individual perceptions of the strength of Nigeria’s democracy are most strongly associated with Nigerians’ desire to migrate abroad, in addition to low levels of trust in local security institutions. Urban and more highly educated Nigerians, especially from Lagos, are also more likely to want to migrate abroad. These findings shed new light on domestic policy steps that could address the grievances and concerns of those who seek to migrate. Classification-JEL: J11; O15; O20; R23 Keywords: migrants, migration, Nigeria, smuggling, West Africa Creation-Date: 2018-07-17 Number: 17 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:17-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alex Thurston Author-Workplace-Name: Miami University Title: Political settlements with jihadists in Algeria and the Sahel Abstract: Military operations have not prevented the spread of jihadist insurgency in the Sahel, particularly in Mali. While some Sahelian elites favour dialogue with jihadists, hoping to negotiate political settlements that reduce or end violence, past political settlements have sometimes set the stage for future conflict. This paper analyses past settlements with jihadists in Algeria and the Sahel, distinguishing between “stabilising settlements” that remove fighters from the battlefield versus “delaying settlements” that allow jihadists to accumulate resources and recruits. Even stabilising settlements carry downsides, particularly when they push jihadists into neighbouring states. The paper also analyses recent efforts in Mali to conduct dialogue with two leading jihadists, Iyad ag Ghali and Amadou Kouffa. The paper assesses that these efforts have faltered due to logistical problems and the state’s ambivalence, rather than due to ideological factors. Although renewed dialogue is more likely to fail than succeed, the paper recommends making further attempts. Classification-JEL: F51; N47 Keywords: Al Qaeda, jihadism, Mali, peace negotiations, Sahara, Sahel Creation-Date: 2018-09-26 Number: 18 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:18-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sebastian Elischer Author-Workplace-Name: University of Florida Title: Contemporary Civil-Military Relations in the Sahel Abstract: The paper examines the evolution and the contemporary state of civil-military relations in the francophone Sahel (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal). In a first step, the paper traces the emergence of excessive political influence of the armed forces (praetorianism) in the Sahel. Out of these, only Senegal has remained under civilian rule since independence. The other countries have experienced military dictatorship at some point. Over the last thirty years, the Sahel has seen a shift toward more civilian oversight in political affairs. In Chad and Mauritania, however, the armed forces remain the pre-eminent political actor. In Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, sections of the armed forces refuse to accept civilian rule. The second part examines the various challenges and tasks the armed forces in all six countries have been involved in over the last two decades. Although these challenges differ substantially across the six individual countries, the Sahel as a whole continues to struggle primarily with domestic security threats. The paper concludes with guidelines designed to foster civilian oversight and democratic reform. Classification-JEL: D74; F5; N47 Keywords: armed forces, civilian-military relations, dictatorships, praetorianism, Sahel, West Africa Creation-Date: 2019-02-12 Number: 19 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:19-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Regional Integration in Border Cities Abstract: This report, part of the “Cities” collection, highlights the contribution of border towns to the process of regional integration in West Africa. For 18 countries, six indicators are used to identify the specificities of border towns at the local, national and international levels: demography, urban morphology, formal enterprises, health infrastructure, road accessibility, border control posts. These indicators are analysed from the perspective of three geographical scales of regional integration (density, distance and division). The report details the economic and institutional obstacles facing border towns. It concludes with place-based political options to facilitate the economic and political development of West African border towns.Also in this Collection:“Population and Morphology of Border Cities”, No. 21“Businesses and Health in Border Cities”, No. 22“Accessibility and Infrastructure in Border Cities”, No. 23 Classification-JEL: O18; O21; F15; F10 Keywords: border cities, multidimensional analyses, placed-based policies, regional integration, West Africa Creation-Date: 2019-04-18 Number: 20 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:20-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Population and Morphology of Border Cities Abstract: This report, part of the “Cities” collection, provides an analysis of the demographic and morphological changes in West African border cities since the mid-20th century. Using the Africapolis harmonised database makes it possible to show that since 1950 border cities have experienced higher rates of growth than other cities in the region. While the average size of cities increases with distance from a border, the opposite is true for urban density; it decreases as distance from a border increases. This suggests that border cities form urban centres that differ from other such centres due to the fact that they specialise in the commercial activities that stimulate growth and foster higher densities. The report identifies the 27 main cross-border agglomerations in the region and discusses their specificcharacteristics.Also in this Collection:“Regional Integration in Border Cities”, No. 20“Businesses and Health in Border Cities”, No. 22“Accessibility and Infrastructure in Border Cities”, No. 23 Classification-JEL: O18; O21; F15; F10 Keywords: Africapolis, cross-border agglomerations, demography, morphology, urban density Creation-Date: 2019-04-18 Number: 21 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:21-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Businesses and Health in Border Cities Abstract: This report, part of the “Cities” collection, analyses the spatial distribution of formal enter¬prises and health infrastructure in West Africa. The analysis shows that sectors crucial for regional integration are concentrated in economic capitals rather than in border areas. These results illustrate the difficulty that many West African countries have in distributing the potential for economic development throughout the country. The mapping of health infrastructure shows that border towns have a surplus of medical centres and a deficit of hospitals and maternity wards relative to their urban populations. The report identifies several regions in which closer co-operation could favour the establishment of cross-border health facilities.Also in this Collection: “Regional Integration in Border Cities”, No. 20 “Population and Morphology of Border Cities”, No. 21 “Accessibility and Infrastructure in Border Cities”, No. 23 Classification-JEL: O18; O21; I15; F15; F10 Keywords: businesses, cross-border co-operation, health, national cohesion, regional integration Creation-Date: 2019-04-18 Number: 22 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:22-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: OECD Title: Accessibility and Infrastructure in Border Cities Abstract: This report, part of the “Cities” collection, analyses road accessibility, transport corridors and checkpoints set up in border towns in West Africa. An innovative model shows that the population base of border towns could be 14% greater if there were no delays at border crossings. The existence of roadside checks decreases the size of this population base from 12 to 50%. A study of 59 jointly planned or operated border posts in sub-Saharan Africa shows that trade facilitation runs up against the special interests of public servants and private-sector actors making a living from regional integration frictions.Also in this Collection: “Regional Integration in Border Cities”, No. 20 “Population and Morphology of Border Cities”, No. 21 “Businesses and Health in Border Cities”, No. 22 Classification-JEL: O18; O21; R41; R42 Keywords: border posts, infrastructure, regional trade, road accessibility, transport corridors, urban networks Creation-Date: 2019-04-18 Number: 23 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:23-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Analee Pepper Author-Workplace-Name: Bettine Pepper Advising Title: Integrating gender analysis into food & nutrition security early warning systems in West Africa Abstract: Integrating gender dimensions into early warning systems is critical to support equitable crisis prevention and response. This paper investigates the extent to which food and nutrition security early warning systems (FNS EWS) in the Sahel and West Africa are gender-responsive and highlights existing gaps at national and regional levels. Progress has been made by key partners and stakeholders towards strengthening the gender analysis of FNS EWS, however, these efforts have not led to a unified reconfiguration of joint FNS EWS mechanisms to be more gender-responsive. More concerted efforts are required to assess and track the gender dimensions of FNS EWS to inform more equitable emergency prevention and response. This paper provides timely policy directions to support stakeholders’ efforts in strengthening the gender-responsiveness of early warning systems in the Sahel and West Africa. Classification-JEL: H12; J16; R58; Q18 Keywords: early warning systems, food security, gender analysis, gender responsiveness, sex- and age-disaggregated data Creation-Date: 2019-04-05 Number: 24 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:24-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Daniel Eizenga Title: Long term trends across security and development in the Sahel Abstract: Following the 2013 French military intervention in Mali, significant attention has been paid to issues of security and development in the Sahel. The stability of Sahelian countries and the capacity of their governments to manage social change and resulting tensions have major security implications for migration flows, economic development, and health concerns both for local people and for the broader international community. The rise of violent religious extremism in the region and the varied efforts to curtail its spread have raised international alarm and prompted important resources to be invested by both domestic governments and foreign partners. This paper offers a broad overview of the current situation in the Sahel paying attention to the intersecting and overlapping issues of security and development. The paper then interrogates three central themes—poverty, migration, and conflict—adopting a historical perspective to examine long-term trends in the region. In doing so, it aims to contribute to contemporary policy discussions by offering evidence of how these dynamics have either changed or persisted across this centrally important region during the last several decades. Classification-JEL: D74; F51; N47 Keywords: development, migration, Sahel, violent extremism Creation-Date: 2019-09-17 Number: 25 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:25-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Chesney McOmber Title: Women and climate change in the Sahel Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explore the gendered impacts of climate change in the Sahel. In particular, it explores the ways in which gender inequality is a critical factor in understanding vulnerability and resilience efforts concerning climate change. It shows that the current climate crisis is affecting livelihoods throughout the Sahel in pronounced ways. In a region highly dependent upon subsistence agriculture and pastoralist livelihoods, climate variability and environmental degradation have made such livelihoods difficult to sustain, the effects of which have broad ranging impacts on social and economic systems. Consequently, migration, livelihood adaptation, social unrest, and political instability emerge from the ecological challenges the Sahel is facing. Those with the resources to respond to and prepare for future climate events will be better equipped to navigate the climate crisis. Unfortunately, those resources are rarely equally distributed at the household, community, and state levels. In particular, gender inequalities within the Sahel pose a very real challenge for adaptation and resilience strategies as states and global institutions make interventions to support at risk populations. The paper then explores what development and state institutions are doing to resolve gender inequity through climate resilience policy, and where these efforts are falling short. The paper concludes with some strategies to improve opportunities for gender equity and climate resilience based on field research within the Sahel. Classification-JEL: Q54; J16; O55 Creation-Date: 2020-03-09 Number: 27 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:27-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Valerie C. Valerio Author-Workplace-Name: University of Florida Title: The structure of livestock trade in West Africa Abstract: This paper uses network analysis to map and characterise live animal trade in West Africa. Building on a database of 42 251 animal movements collected by the Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) from 2013-17, it describes the structure of regional livestock trade at the network, trade community and market levels. Despite yearly fluctuations in the volumes and spatial patterns of trade, the paper shows that regional livestock trade operates on well-established trade corridors as animals flow in specific directions. The study also confirms that livestock trade is structured around several national and cross-border groups of markets that exchange more animals than expected by chance. Close to two-thirds of all animals are shipped internationally, indicating that regional animal trade in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is remarkably cross-border. Finally, the paper finds that the hub markets that concentrate the most shipments also handle more animals and trade with more markets. Additionally, peripheral markets have more defined roles as primarily origins or destinations of animal shipments than markets in the core of the network. Of the nine key markets identified, three are close to borders, highlighting the importance of Nigeria as a livestock consumption destination for regional livestock production. Classification-JEL: F1; F14; F4; Q1; Q17; Q18; R12 Creation-Date: 2020-09-01 Number: 29 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:29-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olajumoke Ayandele Author-Workplace-Name: New York University Title: Non-military actors as a regional strategy in the Lake Chad region Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine current regional strategies employed to counter extremism in the Lake Chad Basin region. Using the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) as a case study, the paper highlights the importance of non-military actors in shaping African regional military strategies. Regional peace and security frameworks have generally placed a predominant emphasis on member countries’ militaries and their institutions. Unfortunately, such an approach remains incomplete in effectively countering transnational terrorist threats. By assessing current LCBC collaborative mechanisms with non-military actors under the Regional Stabilisation Strategy created in 2018, the paper concludes that there is a need to incorporate more local actors in the regional security framework. Such collaborations will improve civil-military relations while boosting the resilience of member states in combatting Boko Haram and other transnational groups. Classification-JEL: D74; Q34; N47 Keywords: extremism, Lake Chad Bassin Commission, security, terrorism, West Africa Creation-Date: 2021-04-13 Number: 30 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:30-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Matthew Pflaum Author-Workplace-Name: University of Florida Title: Pastoralist violence in North and West Africa Abstract: This study examines the geographical and temporal evolution of violence in which pastoralists are engaged. Building upon an analysis of over 36,000 violent events in North and West Africa between January 1997 and April 2020 in which 206 pastoralist groups were involved, this paper provides a regional report on wider patterns of pastoralist violence over the last two decades. Pastoralist violence has both expanded and intensified in the region, as is evidenced by the rapid increase in number of events and fatalities over the past decade. A comprehensive understanding of pastoralists’ roles in this violence is thus crucial to facilitating more effective polices towards sustainable peace. Classification-JEL: Q34; N47; D74; R52 Keywords: North Africa, Pastoralism, political violence, security, West Africa Creation-Date: 2021-07-13 Number: 31 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:31-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Abel Schumann Author-Name: SWAC Title: How is life in West Africa's cities?: Results from an online perception survey of life in urban areas Abstract: The number of people living in African cities is expected to double over the next two decades. While the need to provide adequate infrastructure, create high quality jobs and manage pollution in fast growing cities has been well studied, these studies say little about subjective quality of city life. This paper presents findings from the first large-scale quality of life perception survey covering 27 cities in 17 countries in West Africa and the Sahel. Responses from nearly 9000 urban West Africans provide an insight into perceptions of city life, local government quality, and policy priorities with the intention of giving residents a voice in the policy dialogue on the future of African cities. In addition to comparing perceptions across cities, the paper demonstrates the feasibility of an online approach to run large-scale online surveys in West African cities of different sizes and cultural contexts. Classification-JEL: R50; Y80 Keywords: cities, perception survey, urbanisation, well-being, West Africa Creation-Date: 2021-08-05 Number: 32 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:32-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier J. Walther Title: Urbanisation and demography in North and West Africa, 1950-2020 Abstract: This brief presents a factual and retrospective analysis of the relationships between urbanisation and demography in North Africa and West Africa. It shows that the process of demographic transition is now fully underway in this region. North of the Sahara the new demographic equilibrium features a birth rate higher than expected, according to theoretical model predictions, resulting in continuous population growth. Over 70% of the population now lives in cities, a number that is expected to continue to rise in the coming decades. South of the Sahara all countries have seen death rates plummet, followed by a decrease in birth rates. The gap between the change in the two variables has contributed to spectacular natural growth in the space of a few decades. This growth is occurring in parallel with a redistribution of populations to urban areas, which are now home to close to one of every two inhabitants. West African urbanisation is likely to accelerate the social, economic and political changes that favour the demographic transition. One of the main challenges facing the region is the question of how to reduce the regional variations seen in fertility rates between the continent’s urban and rural areas. Classification-JEL: N37; N97; Q56 Keywords: birth rate, demography, population, urbanisation, West Africa Creation-Date: 2021-11-11 Number: 33 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:33-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Roudabeh Kishi Title: Political violence targeting women in West Africa Abstract: Women around the world are facing unprecedented levels of targeted political violence. This is also true in West Africa. Women can be targeted in a myriad of ways, by an array of types of perpetrators, during and outside of periods of conflict and contentious crises. The result though is consistent: such targeted violence has worrying implications for women’s political participation as well as their involvement in the public sphere. Political violence targeting women (PVTW) in West Africa has become increasingly common, with this trend increasing even more dramatically in recent years. The threat and risks, however, have not been uniform: different types of violence and different primary perpetrators dominate the gendered violence landscape across countries. Using data from ACLED, this paper tracks how women are targeted, and who is targeting women. Only by understanding how threats and risks that women face differ across countries can strategies be created to protect women. Classification-JEL: D74; F51; J16; N47 Keywords: political violence, Sahel, security, violence against women, West Africa, women Creation-Date: 2022-06-17 Number: 34 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:34-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Charlotte Goemans Author-Name: Jennifer Sheahan Author-Name: Seve Loudon Title: Financing for gender equality in the Sahel and West Africa Abstract: The Sahel and West Africa continue to face significant challenges in advancing towards gender equality and women’s empowerment. While much progress has been made in health and educational outcomes for women and girls in the region, much more has yet to be done. Official development assistance (ODA) can serve a crucial role in this respect, by mobilising support for gender equality. This paper aims to highlight the current financing for the gender equality landscape in the region. It points to a need to increase the share of ODA supporting gender equality objectives; to support local women’s organisations as key actors in reaching the most vulnerable women and girls; to invest in the evaluation of gender-sensitive programmes and learning around them; and to support the generation of gender-disaggregated data to identify where action can be most effective. Classification-JEL: F50; I15; I25; L31; O10 Keywords: development co-operation, gender equality, humanitarian assistance, Official development assistance (ODA), peace and security (WPS), the Sahel and West Africa, women Creation-Date: 2022-06-24 Number: 35 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:35-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Sebastian Elischer Title: Populist civil society, the Wagner Group, and post-coup politics in Mali Abstract: The military coup of August 2020 upended Mali’s fragile liberal democratic order. The junta-led transitionary government defies international pressure to fasten the return of democratically-elected rulers and constitutional rule. The ability of the junta to shape the course of Malian politics rests on two interconnected pillars. First, there is public resentment towards the post-1991 political class and France’s military involvement in the country. The forces representing that resentment view the junta as change makers and have formed influential political organisations that oppose there turn to the status quo ante. Second, there is the security co-operation with Russian mercenaries, which provides the transitionary government with an alternative security partner. The paper traces the origins, evolution, and the future strength of these pillars. It concludes by outlining future political scenarios and the future role of the military in Malian politics. Classification-JEL: D74; F50; F55; P48 Keywords: democracy, Mali, military coup, Russia, Wagner Group Creation-Date: 2022-07-12 Number: 36 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:36-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brilé Anderson Author-Name: Jorge Eduardo Patiño Quinchía Author-Name: Rafael Prieto Curiel Title: Boosting African cities' resilience to climate change: The role of green spaces Abstract: The next few decades will bring an era of rapid urbanisation and unprecedented climate stress in African cities. Green spaces can boost the resilience of cities to heat waves, floods, landslides, and even coastal erosion, in addition, to enhancing sustainability by improving air quality, protecting biodiversity, and absorbing carbon. All of which can enhance well-being. Yet, data on the availability of green spaces in African urban agglomerations is scarce. This analysis fills the gap by combining new and novel data sources to estimate the availability of green spaces in 5 625 urban agglomerations with 10 000 inhabitants and above. The rest of the report then uses this novel dataset to first evaluate the dynamics between urbanisation and green spaces, and second, explore the potential of green spaces to boost the resilience and sustainability of cities in the future. The results show that as urban agglomerations become larger and more compact, green spaces disappear, exacerbating their vulnerability to climate change and deteriorating liveability. However, building taller buildings (i.e., growing vertically), offers a way for cities to grow whilst minimising loss of green space. Results show that more green space can boost sustainability by significantly lowering air pollution in African cities, which could be vital for public health in the future since outdoor air pollution is rising. The potential for green spaces to enhance resilience to climate events, like heat waves, depends on the location of green spaces throughout the city and the percentage of the population that lives close to a green space (i.e., within 300 metres). Green spaces may play a limited role in coping with heat waves in a city like Khartoum where only 3% of the population lives close to a green space, but could be a nature-based solution to heat waves in a city like Abuja, where 55% of the population can benefit from its cooling effects. Moving forward, local actors have clear evidence of the power of green spaces to build a sustainable and resilient future. Still, the report reveals that local actors need support from regional and national actors to realise the potential of green spaces. Classification-JEL: Q53; Q54; Q56; Q57; R14; R15; R52 Keywords: Africa, Cities, Ecosystem-services, Green spaces, Nature-based solutions, Resilience, Sustainability Creation-Date: 2022-07-31 Number: 37 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:37-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brilé Anderson Author-Name: Susanne Rhein Author-Name: Daniel Acosta Title: West Africa and the global climate agenda Abstract: COP27 will return to Africa for the first time since 2016 to follow up on promises made in Glasgow in 2021 to limit global temperatures to well below 2°C by the end of the century as committed under the Paris Agreement. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) enable each country to pursue a tailored approach under the Paris Agreement, with countries setting their own mitigation and adaptation targets with the aim of increasing ambition with each subsequent submission. This report analyses the NDCs of 17 countries in West Africa on some of the pressing issues to be discussed at COP27, namely the ambition of targets in NDCs, the financing needs related to NDCs and their implementation. The objective of this report is two-fold: to inform COP participants where the region stands on these matters, and to identify opportunities for the region in updating NDCs. Classification-JEL: F53; O19; Q01; Q54; Q58 Keywords: Climate finance, COP 27, Global Climate Agenda, Mitigation targets, National Determined Contributions, Paris Agreement, UNFCCC, West Africa Creation-Date: 2022-11-09 Number: 38 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:38-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Yan Bai Author-Name: Jill Bouscarat Author-Name: Kristina Sokourenko Author-Name: Philipp Heinrigs Author-Name: Koffi Zougbédé Title: Healthy diets, costs and food policies in the Sahel and West Africa Abstract: The Sahel and West Africa region is facing a serious food and nutrition security crisis with high rates of acute malnutrition, combined with high rates of malnourishment and over-nourishment – the “triple burden of malnutrition”. Poor-quality diets are the root of all forms of malnutrition, as well as common non-communicable diseases, and are responsible for an estimated one in five adult deaths globally. The high cost of food is a key barrier to accessing a healthy diet. Even before the recent global inflation in food prices, West Africa’s food prices were 30%-40% higher than other regions in the world of comparable income levels. The paper analyses the costs of healthy diets in 17 countries in the Sahel and West Africa and which food groups drive up costs. The observed high cross-country variability in costs and cost composition points to a need for more targeted and nutrition-sensitive food system policies as well as the need to invest in better food price data and monitoring capacities. Classification-JEL: O55; Q11; Q13; Q18 Keywords: Cost of diet, Food prices, Food systems, Healthy diets, West Africa Creation-Date: 2023-07-31 Number: 39 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:39-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brilé Anderson Author-Name: Rafael Prieto Curiel Author-Name: Jorge Eduardo Patiño Quinchía Title: City shapes and climate change in Africa Abstract: Africa is undergoing an unprecedented urban and climate transition; yet, given the right conditions, compact urban forms can encourage greater sustainability, resilience and liveability in the coming decades. Using novel techniques and newly available data, this report fills in existing data gaps by producing measures of compactness for 5 625 urban agglomerations, along with other urban form attributes. Even though urbanisation is often unplanned and uncoordinated, a promising trend has emerged: very large cities (of over 4 million inhabitants) are more compact, discounting the population effect, on average, than larger (1 million to 4 million inhabitants) and intermediate cities (50 000 to 1 million inhabitants). Moreover, less compact agglomerations tend to have smaller buildings, flat, low skylines, less complete centres (reflecting a less optimal use of space) and polycentric patterns (i.e. multiple centres, rather than a single, monocentric city). This report analyses the consequences of less compact agglomerations for sustainability and liveability. The disadvantages include higher energy demand, less accessibility to services and opportunities, less walkable urban landscapes and greater car dependency, in addition to higher outdoor air pollution. It also considers the potential trade-offs with resilience; for example, compactness can lead to a loss of green space and an increase of urban heat island effects. The report offers opportunities in the coming years to single out potential areas of action for resilience, as well as for monitoring and evaluating progress. Classification-JEL: Q24; Q47; Q56; Q58; R58 Keywords: Africa, cities, compactness, spatial data, sustainability Creation-Date: 2023-09-08 Number: 40 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:40-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Olivier J. Walther Author-Name: David Russell Title: The fragmentation of conflict networks in North and West Africa Abstract: African armed conflicts involve a myriad of state forces, rebel groups and extremist organisations bound by rapidly changing alliances and rivalries. Organisations that were allies one day can fight each other the next and co-operate later still. The objective of this note is to update the pioneer work on conflict networks conducted by the OECD Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC) in the region by using a formal approach to networks known as dynamic social network analysis. Leveraging a dataset of 3 800 actors and 60 000 violent events from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) from 1997-2023, the note monitors how the co-operative and rivalrous ties between violent actors have changed over time, both at the regional and local levels. The growing number of belligerents, increasing density of rivalrous relationships and growing polarisation of the conflict networks observed in this note are extremely worrying for the future of the region. Not only do they make peaceful efforts more difficult than ever, but they also contribute to increasing the number of potential victims among the civilian population. Classification-JEL: D74; D85; H56; N47 Keywords: conflict, dynamic social network analysis, networks, North Africa, political violence, Sahel, West Africa Creation-Date: 2024-03-09 Number: 41 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:41-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Steven Radil Author-Name: Olivier J. Walther Title: Identifying local conflict trends in North and West Africa Abstract: Several states in West Africa have experienced significant episodes of political violence since the early 2010s. These have included civil wars, religiously motivated terrorism, separatist insurgencies, military coups and communal strife, each of which have local, national and transnational dimensions. Intended to help guide responses to the region’s political challenges, the Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC/OECD) created an interactive, spatial tool for policy makers in 2019, the Spatial Conflict Dynamics indicator (SCDi). The SCDi monitors political violence at subnational scales. It combines different quantitative dimensions of conflict into a mappable tool that describes the circumstances in each location. The latest enhancement to the SCDi brings two new features to aid the identification of local conflict trends. First, the tool now identifies regions that are newly entering into or exiting from conflict. This allows a more detailed picture of how the geography of conflict is spreading or contracting within and across national borders. Second, the tool now characterises the current conditions in a location as either worsening or improving, based on past conditions at the same location. The SCDi is implemented in SWAC’s new Mapping Territorial Transformations in Africa (MAPTA) platform. Classification-JEL: D74; D85; H56; N47 Keywords: armed conflict, North Africa, political violence, spatial analysis, Spatial Conflict Dynamics indicator, West Africa Creation-Date: 2024-03-09 Number: 42 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:42-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Alex Thurston Title: Military coups, jihadism and insecurity in the Central Sahel Abstract: This paper examines the interactions between the 2020-23 Sahelian coups and the trajectories of jihadism and insecurity, covering three countries: Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. First, it examines pre-coup trends in violence. Second, the paper finds that coup-makers’ policy choices have accelerated the worsening of violence beyond the pre-coup baseline trend, especially when coup-makers authorise new actors to commit violence, although trends in violence remain somewhat erratic and are even more complex at the sub-national level. Third, it offers an ambivalent finding on the impact of the withdrawal of the French Operation Barkhane following Mali’s second coup in 2021. Finally, the paper discusses the apparent strategies of the region’s two main jihadist groups, which have largely continued their pre-coup strategies, but have also responded to new conflict actors and pursued certain opportunities for increased territorial influence. Classification-JEL: D74; F50; F51; Q34 Keywords: Burkina Faso, coups, ECOWAS, jihadism, Mali, Niger, Sahel, violence Creation-Date: 2024-05-01 Number: 43 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:43-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Anouar Boukhars Title: Thwarting nascent insurgencies in coastal West Africa Abstract: This paper examines the evolution of the role of defence and security forces in combating insurgencies in the most affected coastal West African states. The case studies offer examinations of states’ efforts to enhance the capabilities of defence and security forces in five areas, namely the expansion, professionalisation, and specialisation, as well as enhancement of multi-agency co-ordination and community relations. They also identify a set of challenges and opportunities surrounding the adoption and implementation of comprehensive strategies to countering violent militancy. Each context is different, but the cases’ commonalities help generate several foundational lessons that defence and security forces and their organisations should consider as they hone and deepen the reforms launched to enhance the operational effectiveness and political legitimacy of their forces. These lessons reinforce the principles and imperatives derived from studies on countering militant groups in the Sahel and West Africa. Classification-JEL: D74; F50; F51; Q34 Keywords: coastal West Africa, defence and security forces, insurgency, interagency, militancy, trust Creation-Date: 2024-10-09 Number: 44 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:44-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Véronique Thériault Author-Name: Jill Bouscarat Author-Name: Philipp Heinrigs Author-Name: Alban Mas Aparisi Author-Name: Amidou Assima Title: Diet transformations and changing food environments in the Sahel and West Africa Abstract: Over the past two decades, urban population growth and rising incomes in West Africa have increased demand for diverse, convenient, safe and nutritious foods, including processed products. At the same time, urbanisation is changing foods environments —the physical, economic, and informational contexts that influence consumer food choices—with expected implications for nutrition. This paper assesses the current understanding of diets and food environment transformations in the region. Findings indicate a shift towards more nutritious foods, as well as oils, sweets, and high-fat products, with dietary changes varying across income groups. Food environments are growing more complex, with numerous outlets offering diverse products, but with inconsistent proximity and affordability. The rapid pace of these changes emphasizes the need for better data systems to update our understanding of food consumption patterns in the region and to capture their growing complexity. Classification-JEL: I18; Q13; Q18; O55 Creation-Date: 2024-10-16 Number: 45 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:45-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brilé Anderson Author-Name: Jorge Patiño Author-Name: Jennifer Sheahan Author-Name: Prof. Kwadwo Owusu Author-Name: Ernest Agyemang, Dr. Author-Name: Doris Boateng, Dr. Author-Name: Yaroslav Kholodov Author-Name: Nick Carros Author-Name: Alex Johnson Title: Accessibility for all to unlock sustainable mobility - a gendered approach: The case of Accra and Kumasi in Ghana Abstract: The transport systems of Accra and Kumasi confront formidable challenges, including rising pollution, congestion, emissions along with traffic accidents. Even though most residents rely on walking and popular transport (notably trotro), it is challenging to reach essential services throughout the city via these modes. In fact, accessibility deserts exist for non-car modes, i.e., it is impossible to reach crucial destinations within a 30-minute walking radius especially in newly urbanised areas. Furthermore, popular transport is not fully meeting the needs of all travellers, e.g., additional costs and denial of access for heavy loads, disproportionately impact women, who often combine work-related travel with care responsibilities. The prohibition of potentially beneficial modes, such as three-wheelers and moto-taxis, could exacerbate accessibility gaps. This policy paper high-lights the need for sustainable, inclusive, and accessible transport systems in these dynamic and urbanising cities. Classification-JEL: Q01; Q52; R41; R42; J16 Keywords: accessibility, gender, Ghana, sustainability, transport Creation-Date: 2024-11-29 Number: 46 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:46-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Brilé Anderson Author-Name: Jorge Patiño Author-Name: Jennifer Sheahan Author-Name: Prof. Kwadwo Owusu Author-Name: Ernest Agyemang, Dr. Author-Name: Yaroslav Kholodov Author-Name: Nick Carros Author-Name: Ransford A. Acheampong Author-Name: Augustine Yaw Asuah Author-Name: Alex Johnson Title: Shaping expanding cities for accessible transport - Proximity and road networks: The case of Accra and Kumasi in Ghana Abstract: Accra and Kumasi expanded rapidly over the last 35 years, with residential developments appearing on the periphery, often with limited investments in infrastructure or essentials services. This lowers proximity diminishing accessibility in these cities, especially in the absence of well-functioning transit system with mass-transit, bike lanes, sidewalks, and so on. In fact, the road network, itself, can make it difficult to travel via non-car modes, e.g., limited intersections worsen walkability. In cities, like Accra and Kumasi, anyone living in those areas who might rely on walking or trotros (which is most of the population) might find themselves cut off from essential daily needs, particularly women who are carrying out caregiving roles alongside their employment. Creating proximity can drastically improve the quality of life and feasibility of non-car modes. Even though, there is general acceptance that land-use and transport need to go together within government, several governance and institutional barriers stand in the way of realising this. This policy paper explores two levers to improve accessibility (proximity and road network upgrading) and explores paths for better co-ordination within existing institutional frameworks. Classification-JEL: O18; Q15; R14; R41; O21 Keywords: accessibility, Ghana, land use, land-use, transport, urbanisation Creation-Date: 2024-11-29 Number: 47 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:47-EN Template-type: ReDIF-Paper 1.0 Author-Name: Valerie C. Valerio Title: Unravelling West African livestock trader networks Abstract: Natural resources, urbanisation, and population distribution create disparities in production and demand that drive a vast network of intraregional live animal trade in West Africa. It has long been argued that social capital is essential for long-distance transactions in a region where trade agreements are not fully executed and many barriers to trade exist. This paper examines the social and spatial structure of the trader networks that underpin regional trade. Using co-location social network analysis and 2013 to 2017 regional survey data from the Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), it provides valuable insights into the interplay between economic factors and geographic constraints. The results reveal a fragmented and decentralised social network with border- and infrastructure-driven geographical fragmentation. They also suggest that the network relies on brokers who connect groups of traders with differentiated trade characteristics. The findings reinforce that, in the face of a regionally fragmented environment with many barriers, long-distance commodity flows rely on the social capital of traders. Classification-JEL: F1; F14; Q1; Q17; Q18; R12 Keywords: livestock trade, regional integration, social network analysis, West Africa Creation-Date: 2024-12-23 Number: 48 Handle: RePEc:oec:swacaa:48-EN